Northampton_Hazard Mitigation Plan-ADOPTED 8.20.2020THE CITY OF NORTHAMPTON
MULTI -HAZARD MITIGATION PL AN
2020 UPDATE
Adopted by the Northampton City Council on August 20, 2020
Prepared by:
The Northampton Hazard Mitigation Committee
and
Pioneer Valley Planning Commission
60 Congress Street
Springfield, MA 01104
(413) 781-6045
www.pvpc.org
City of Northampton
MASSACHUSETTS
_________
In City Council, August 20, 2020
Upon the recommendation of Mayor David J. Narkewicz and Planning & Sustainability
20.102 AN ORDER ADOPTING THE CITY OF NORTHAMPTON
HAZARD MITIGATION PLAN UPDATE
WHEREAS, the City of Northampton established a Committee to update the City’s local Hazard
Mitigation plan; and
WHEREAS, the City of Northampton participated in the update of the City of Northampton’s
local Hazard Mitigation Plan; and
WHEREAS, the City of Northampton 2020 Hazard Mitigation Plan Update contains several
potential future projects to mitigate potential impacts from natural hazards in the
City of Northampton, and
WHEREAS, a duly-noticed public meeting was held by the City’s local Hazard Mitigation Plan
Update Committee on June 22, 2020 for the public and municipality to review prior
to consideration of this resolution; and
WHEREAS, the City of Northampton authorizes responsible departments and/or agencies to
execute their responsibilities demonstrated in the plan,
NOW, THEREFORE BE IT ORDERED,
That the City of Northampton City Council formally approves and adopts the City of
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update, in accordance with M.G.L. c. 40.
20.102
In City Council, August 20, 2020
Passed First Reading on Roll Call Vote of 9 Yes, 0 No, 0 Absent
Attest: __________________________________________________, Clerk of Council
In City Council, August 20, 2020
Passed Second Reading on Roll Call Vote of 9 Yes, 0 No, 0 Absent
Attest: ___________________________________________________, Clerk of Council
Approved: David J. Narkewicz, Mayor
Rules suspended, passed two readings and enrolled.
I hereby certify that the above Order passed the Northampton City Council on August 20, 2020
David J. Narkewicz, Mayor approved the Order on August 24, 2020
Attest: ___________________________________________________, Clerk of Council
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the Northampton Hazard Mitigation Steering Committee and those who participated in the
planning process as specialty committee members, attending and consulting as needed, and Planning &
Sustainability, the City’s Hazard Mitigation Plan project manager.
The City of Northampton, its Mayor, and its City Council offers thanks to the Massachusetts Emergency
Management Agency (MEMA) for developing the Massachusetts Hazard Mitigation Plan which served as
a model for this plan. In addition, special thanks are extended to the staff of the Pioneer Valley Planning
Commission for professional services, process facilitation and preparation of this document.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1: Planning Process____________________________________________________________ 1
Introduction ______________________________________________________________________ 1
Hazard Mitigation Planning Committee ________________________________________________ 1
Participation by Stakeholders ________________________________________________________ 3
2: Local Profile _______________________________________________________________ 7
Community Setting _________________________________________________________________ 7
3: Hazard Identification and Analysis ____________________________________________ 13
Natural Hazard Analysis Methodology ________________________________________________ 14
Climate Change and Natural Hazards _________________________________________________ 18
Flooding ________________________________________________________________________ 21
Dam Failure / Levee Breach _________________________________________________________ 36
Drought _________________________________________________________________________ 40
Extreme Temperatures ____________________________________________________________ 46
Wildfires / Brushfires ______________________________________________________________ 56
Invasive Species __________________________________________________________________ 60
Hurricane/ Tropical Storm __________________________________________________________ 66
Severe Winter Storm / Nor’easter ____________________________________________________ 71
Severe Thunderstorm / Wind / Tornado _______________________________________________ 81
Earthquake ______________________________________________________________________ 86
Pandemic and Epidemic ____________________________________________________________ 91
Other Hazards ____________________________________________________________________ 99
4: Critical Facilities __________________________________________________________ 101
5: Mitigation Strategies ______________________________________________________ 109
Existing Mitigation Strategies ______________________________________________________ 109
Discontinued or Completed Mitigation Strategies ______________________________________ 146
Prioritized Implementation Plan ____________________________________________________ 148
6: Plan review, evaluation, implementation, and adoption __________________________ 161
Plan Adoption ___________________________________________________________________ 161
Plan Implementation _____________________________________________________________ 161
Incorporation with Other Planning Documents ________________________________________ 161
Plan Monitoring and Evaluation ____________________________________________________ 163
7: Appendices ______________________________________________________________ 164
Appendix A – Documentation of the Planning Process __________________________________ 164
Appendix B – List of Acronyms _____________________________________________________ 185
Appendix C – Past and Potential Hazards / Critical Facilities Map __________________________ 187
Appendix D – Natural Hazard Profiling Methodology ___________________________________ 188
Appendix E – References __________________________________________________________ 191
Appendix F – Technical Resources ___________________________________________________ 194
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 1
1: PLANNING PROCESS
Introduction
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the Massachusetts Emergency Management
Agency (MEMA) define Hazard Mitigation as any sustained action taken to reduce or eliminate long-
term risk to people and property from natural hazards such as flooding, storms, high winds, hurricanes,
wildfires, and earthquakes. Mitigation efforts undertaken by communities will help to minimize
damages to buildings and infrastructure, such as water supplies, sewers, and utility transmission lines, as
well as natural, cultural and historic resources.
Planning efforts, like the one undertaken by the City of Northampton and the Pioneer Valley Planning
Commission, make mitigation a proactive process. Pre-disaster mitigation planning emphasizes actions
that can be taken before a natural disaster occurs. Future property damage and loss of life can be
reduced or prevented by a mitigation program that addresses the unique geography, demography,
economy, and land use of a community within the context of each of the specific potential natural
hazards that may threaten a community.
Preparing a Local Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan before a disaster occurs can save the community
money and will facilitate post-disaster funding. Costly repairs or replacement of buildings and
infrastructure, as well as the high cost of providing emergency services and rescue/recovery operations,
can be avoided or significantly lessened if a community implements the mitigation measures detailed in
the Plan. FEMA requires that a community adopt a pre-disaster mitigation plan as a condition for
mitigation funding, including the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP), the Flood Mitigation
Assistance Program (FMA), and the Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program (PDM).
Hazard Mitigation Planning Committee
In 2020, the City of Northampton completed an update of their 2015 Hazard Mitigation Plan, in
collaboration with the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission. All portions of the plan were reviewed and
updated as necessary. Planning for hazard mitigation in Northampton involved a seven-member
Steering Committee:
Jon Davine, Fire Department and Emergency Management
Jody Kasper, Police Chief
Sarah LaValley, Planning and Sustainability
Doug McDonald, Stormwater Manager, Public Works
David Pomerantz, Central Services Director
David Veleta, PE, City Engineer, Public Works
Kelly Schuetze, Dispatch Director
2 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
In addition to the Steering Committee, the following stakeholders attended committee meetings and
were available for consultation throughout the planning process:
Wayne Feiden, Planning and Sustainability
Chris Mason, Central Services
Donna LaScalia, Department of Public Works
Merridth O'Leary, Department of Health
Andrew Pelis, Fire Department and Emergency Management
The Hazard Mitigation Plan update process for the City included the following tasks:
• Reviewing and incorporating existing plans and other information.
• Identifying the natural hazards that may impact the community.
• Conducting a Vulnerability/Risk Assessment to identify the infrastructure and structures at
the highest risk for being damaged by the identified natural hazards, particularly flooding.
• Identifying and assessing the policies, programs, and regulations the community is currently
implementing to protect against future disaster damages.
• Identifying deficiencies in the current strategies and establishing goals for updating, revising
or adopting new strategies.
• Adopting and implementing the final updated Hazard Mitigation Plan.
The key product of this process was the development of a Mitigation Strategy and Action Plan with a
Prioritized Implementation Schedule.
Hazard Mitigation Committee Meetings
Northampton kicked off its Hazard Mitigation Plan update at the same time as the novel coronavirus
(COVID-19) was spreading across the United States and the world. Federal, state, and local restrictions
on public gatherings and social distancing inhibited the Steering Committee and project planning team
from meeting in person. The same restrictions prohibited in-person public meetings. As a result, all HMP
meetings, both of the Steering Committee and for public engagement, were held virtually using a Zoom
platform until COVID-19 restrictions were lifted in early summer of 2020. Meetings were held on the
dates listed below. Agendas for each meeting are included in Appendix A. After review by MEMA, the
Hazard Mitigation Steering Committee met to review and incorporate MEMA feedback.
April 2, 2020, 9:30 a.m., Zoom
April 28, 2020, 7:30 p.m. Zoom
May 21, 2020, 9:30 a.m., Zoom
June 4, 2020, 9:30 a.m., Zoom
June 22, 2020, 7:30 p.m., Zoom
Agendas and sign-in sheets for each meeting can be found in Appendix A. While not all members of the
Hazard Mitigation Steering Committee were able to attend each meeting, all members collaborated on
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 3
the plan and were updated on progress by fellow Committee members after meetings occurred as
necessary.
Participation by Stakeholders
A variety of stakeholders were provided with an opportunity to be involved in the development of the
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan. The different categories of stakeholders that were involved, and
the engagement activities that occurred, are described below.
Local and regional agencies involved in hazard mitigation activities and surrounding community
engagement and input
The Pioneer Valley Planning Commission is a regional planning agency for 43 towns and cities in
Massachusetts' Hampden and Hampshire Counties. PVPC regularly engages with the City of
Northampton as part of its regional planning efforts, which include the following:
Developing the Pioneer Valley Regional Land Use Plan, Valley Vision 2, which advocates for
sustainable land use throughout the region and consideration for the impact of flooding and
other natural hazards on development.
Developing the Pioneer Valley Climate Action and Clean Energy Plan, which assesses the impact
that climate change will have on the region and recommends strategies for mitigation that can
be implemented by local municipalities and businesses.
Collaborating with state agencies, such as the Department of Conservation and Recreation, to
maintain inventories of critical infrastructure throughout the region.
All of these PVPC initiatives considered the impact of natural hazards on the region and strategies for
reducing their impact to people and property through hazard mitigation activities. The facilitation of the
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan by PVPC ensured that the information from these plans was
incorporated into the Hazard Mitigation Planning process.
In addition, the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission and several representatives of the Northampton
Hazard Mitigation Committee (Jon Davine and Andrew Pelis) are actively involved in the Western Region
Homeland Security Advisory Council (WRHSAC). WRHSAC, which includes representatives from western
Massachusetts municipalities, Fire Departments, Public Works Departments, Police Departments, area
hospitals and regional transit from throughout the four counties of western Massachusetts, is
responsible for allocating emergency preparedness funding from the US Department of Homeland
Security. The representatives of these disciplines who serve on the WRHSAC are charged with sharing
the information discussed at meetings with their colleagues at their regular meetings. During the HMP
update process, PVPC staff attended all WRHSAC and WRHSAC Pandemic Flu Planning Subcommittee
meetings and all WRHSAC members were aware of the fact that Northampton was updating their
Hazard Mitigation Plan. Meetings of WRHSAC regularly involve discussion about how to improve
emergency preparedness in western Massachusetts, and hazard mitigation activities are included in this
discussion.
4 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
For the update of this Hazard Mitigation Plan, PVPC asked fellow members of WRHSAC for feedback on
mitigation activities and natural hazards pertaining to Northampton, and kept WRHSAC’s Pandemic Flu
Planning Subcommittee apprised on the Plan Update process. This was the method through which
WRHSAC was engaged in the planning process.
In addition, PVPC staff regularly present to their Executive Committee and Commission (representatives
from the 43 cities and towns that comprise the Pioneer Valley), when new projects are launched and
when funding opportunities are available. As result, all the communities in the region were informed of
Northampton’s Hazard Mitigation Plan update process and encouraged to comment.
PVPC staff included a summary article on the status of Hazard Mitigation planning in Northampton and
the region in the monthly e-reader newsletter that is mailed to area Chambers of Commerce, all
member municipalities, area colleges and universities and other key stakeholders in the region. In this
way, businesses, educational institutions and other key stakeholders were educated about and informed
of Northampton’s Hazard Mitigation planning work.
Agencies that have the authority to regulate development
Several City staff who participated in the Northampton Hazard Mitigation Committee have direct
connections to various municipal commissions, boards, and committees within Northampton that have
the authority to regulate development. These commissions and the Hazard Mitigation Committee
members involved in each are as follows:
Transportation and Parking Commission, Energy and Sustainability Commission, Bicycle and
Pedestrian Committee, Planning Board, Resilience Hub planning group - Wayne Feiden, Planning
and Sustainability
Department of Public Works - David Veleta, PE, City Engineer
Conservation Commission, Historical Commission, Community Preservation Committee - Sarah
LaValley, Planning and Sustainability
Local Emergency Planning Committee - Jon Davine, Fire Department and Emergency
Management Coordinator
Energy and Sustainability Commission - Chris Mason, Energy and Sustainability Officer in Central
Services
Feedback from the stakeholder agencies listed above was ensured through the participation of the
Hazard Mitigation Committee members, who were able to attend the Hazard Mitigation Committee
meetings representing their respective groups.
In addition, the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission, as a regional planning authority, works with all
agencies that regulate development in Northampton, including the municipal entities listed above and
state agencies, such as the Department of Conservation and Recreation and MassDOT. This regular
involvement ensured that during the development of the Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan, the
operational policies and any mitigation strategies or identified hazards from these entities were
incorporated into the Hazard Mitigation Plan.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 5
Participation by the Public, Businesses, and Neighboring Communities
Two public planning sessions were held as part of the development of the Northampton Plan – on April
28th, 2020 at 6:30 p.m. and June 22th, 2020 at 6:30 p.m. While the first public meeting, convened
virtually via Zoom, was held early in the planning process, the second meeting, also convened virtually
via Zoom, occurred after the Hazard Mitigation Committee had provided input on hazards and
mitigation strategies relevant to the community. Notice of both public meetings was posted on the City
of Northampton and its Planning and Sustainability webpage calendars and at Northampton City Hall in
compliance with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts’ Open Meeting Law. Public meeting agendas and
notices can be found in Appendix A.
On June 15, 2020, the City sent a press release to all area media outlets to inform the public that a draft
of the Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan had been posted at http://northamptonma.gov/plan and
PVPC’s website. The release also indicated that hard copies were available at Northampton City Hall, and
that all residents of Northampton were encouraged to comment on the Plan by e-mailing or calling staff
contacts at PVPC or the City of Northampton.
The press release and a screen shot of PVPC’s website showing the link to the press release can be found
in Appendix A.
All press releases were sent to local media outlets and the 1849 members of the Planning and
Sustainability mailing list, which includes City residents and businesses, local and regional social service
organizations, and nonprofits, and municipalities throughout the Pioneer Valley, as well as to Western
Massachusetts’ media outlets.
The Hazard Mitigation Committee determined that the most effective outreach strategy for engaging
with the public, businesses and neighboring communities was through the media and Planning &
Sustainability’s list serve, and so this was the outreach strategy employed for reaching out to all three
groups of stakeholders. The press release indicated that residents of Northampton were invited to
attend the public event, which was also intended to include representatives of businesses in
Northampton and residents of neighboring communities.
Businesses and neighboring communities were also provided with an opportunity to provide feedback
through the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission. PVPC is regularly involved in land use, transportation,
and environmental planning initiatives in Northampton and surrounding communities. Regular feedback
received from these other initiatives were incorporated into the hazard mitigation planning process.
Additional outreach to surrounding communities occurred through the regular monthly e-newsletter
that PVPC sends out to its member communities about its recent activities. In these publications,
adjacent municipalities were encouraged to reach out to PVPC about hazard mitigation plans by e-
mailing or calling staff contacts at PVPC. These notices are included in Appendix A.
Feedback was received from the public during and in response to the two public meetings. That
feedback has been incorporated into the plan body where appropriate. In many cases, members of the
6 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
public asked questions and expressed concern over emergency preparedness, response, and recovery
topics that fell outside of the purview of this HMP. For instance, one comment related to the City’s
readiness to handle a natural gas line explosion like the ones that happened in Lawrence, MA in recent
years. Another comment expressed concern about maintaining communications during emergency
response periods for those who rely solely on internet – a situation that gained particular interest
during the COVID-19 quarantine and shelter-in-place periods of the spring of 2020. Wherever possible,
these comments and concerns were folded into the Plan under the capabilities assessment or hazard
profiles as indirect impacts or vulnerabilities.
The City had undergone multiple planning processes, which included robust community engagement
through online and paper surveys, in-person community meetings, and stakeholder meetings, among
other strategies, over two years leading up to this HMP update. Some of these planning processes
included the development of the City’s Climate Resilience and Regeneration Plan (CCRP) in March 2018
and Community Resilience Building (CRB) workshops through the Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness
(MVP) Program in May 2018. Community surveys providing valuable insight into the community’s needs
and concerns relative to natural hazards and climate resilience were a component of the CCRP. The HMP
Steering Committee incorporated the concepts and community-driven responses to those planning
processes into this Hazard Mitigation Plan update. Many of the priorities and proposed strategies
identified in the City’s Statement of Findings, through the MVP CRB process, are found in this plan.
Northampton residents, boards and committees, and elected officials all contributed to the
development of those planning processes, and because they happened so close in time to the HMP
update the HMP Steering Committee decided not to conduct an additional public survey. The overlap of
these issues and strategies confirms Northampton’s commitment of understanding ways to ensure
climate resiliency in development, city operations and policies. Those plans and summaries of the
associated public engagement processes can be viewed at
https://www.northamptonma.gov/2069/Climate and
https://www.mass.gov/files/documents/2019/07/11/Northampton%20Report.pdf .
No other feedback was received from businesses or neighboring communities during the plan update
process. Any future input received from the public, as well as any other stakeholders, will be
incorporated into the Plan during future regular updates.
City Council Meeting
In 2019, the City of Northampton began the process of updating its Hazard Mitigation Plan. Once the
plan was provisionally approved by FEMA, the City Council held a public hearing to formally adopt the
Plan Update.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 7
2: LOCAL PROFILE
Community Setting
Northampton, Massachusetts, is approximately 36.1 square miles. It is mid-way between Connecticut to
the south and Vermont to the north and between Albany, NY, to the west and Boston to the east.
The City lies within the Connecticut River watershed, located west of the river. The land nearest the
Connecticut River has rich, fertile soils and a deep agricultural history. Adjacent to these fertile
floodplains of the Connecticut River is the deep, flat glacial outwash, underlying much of the historic
residential, commercial and industrial development in downtown Northampton, downtown Florence,
and many other older established residential neighborhoods.
The population of Northampton was 28,451 in 2019, according to the U.S. Population and Housing
Estimates Program, scattered through downtown, and throughout villages of Florence, Leeds, Bay State,
and Village Hill.
Development
During the past five years, Northampton has seen new and infill development in various neighborhoods
in the City.
The most significant development is the redevelopment of the former Northampton State Hospital, or
now Village Hill, which continues to be built out. There are two affordable housing projects, with a total
of 66 units, and a co-housing project under construction.
There continues to be development in downtown Northampton and its commercial district of King
Street with multi-family, townhome residential development in downtown, and new businesses on King
Street. The city also is exploring the Community & Resilience Hub to be sited in downtown
Northampton. There are some commercial and municipal development projects in the planning stages
elsewhere in the city, and there is healthy residential development all over the city.
There has not been any development in flood zones or other areas determined to be at high risk from
the hazards identified in this plan, though downtown Northampton is located in the inundation area
that would be affected by a failure of the Connecticut River levee system.
Development in Hazard Areas
Most hazards identified in this plan are regional risks, therefore, all new development falls into the
hazard area. The exception to this is flooding. Northampton is a participating member of the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). According to FEMA’s Community Information System (CIS), there were
88 National Flood Insurance Policy (NFIP) policies in force in Northampton in May, 2020, including 76
residential policies and 12 non-residential policies. The majority of these policies (60 or 88) are
8 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
associated with structures located within the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA) or 100-year floodplain,
shown on the Flood Insurance Rate Maps as zones beginning with the letters 'A' or 'V'.
Infrastructure
Northampton’s location on the Connecticut River was a strong determinant on the growth of the city.
The river bottom provided rich alluvial soils for agriculture and the river itself provided power and
shipping opportunities for the silk industry. The gentle sloping terrain of the Berkshire foothills, in the
western section of the city, helped keep development concentrated in the downtown center that grew
along the banks of the river. The existing infrastructure reflects the influence of this geography.
Roads and Highways
Northampton sits in the heart of the crossroads of New England and, therefore, has many major
thoroughfares running through its borders. The most significant transportation route, Interstate 91, has
four exits in Northampton. Other major roadways are Routes 5, 9, 10 and 66. Route 9 connects
Northampton with towns to the east including Hadley, Amherst, Belchertown, Ware and all points east
as well as the westerly towns of Williamsburg, Cummington and Pittsfield. Route 66 connects
Northampton with Westhampton, Huntington and the Hilltowns to the West. Routes 5 and 10 converge
in Northampton, providing connection to Hatfield, Greenfield and Brattleboro, Vermont. Route 10 runs
south from Northampton to connect with Easthampton and Route 141; Route 5 runs south from
Northampton to connect with Holyoke, Springfield, and Enfield, Connecticut.
There are major roadway construction projects currently underway or due to start within the next year
throughout the city including construction of a roundabout at Exit 19 off I-91, a roundabout on N. King
Street, replacement of the I-91 bridges over Route 5 the railroad and Hockanum Road, and
reconstruction of Damon Road and King Street from Bright to Church Streets. There are related
repaving, sidewalk replacements, and handicap access projects that are also underway or due to start
within the next two years.
Since 2018, the City has led a collaboration to meet the region’s unique challenges. ValleyBike share is
designed to promote short bike trips within core communities, where clusters of large employers,
colleges, shopping, tourist destinations and residents can readily be connected. The program initially
started with 50 bike share stations where people are able to rent bicycles. Northampton will be
constructing new stations in the future.
Rail
Freight traveling on the Boston and Maine Rail Line runs through the center of downtown Northampton
on a daily basis, with a bridge over Route 9, and sharing tracks with Amtrak. The City of Northampton is
situated within the Sustainable Knowledge Corridor, a region of New England that includes the Hartford
and Springfield metropolitan regions connected by Amtrak’s New Haven Rail Line, which runs north-
south from Connecticut to Vermont. New passenger train service called the “Valley Flyer” is currently
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 9
operating on a pilot basis until the fall of 2021 that provides daily service, tripling Amtrak’s daily
frequency through the corridor. This new service supplements the existing Vermonter route.
Public Transportation
Served by various regional bus companies, including Greyhound and Peter Pan, downtown Northampton
is the pulse point for public transportation in the city. Northampton also has multiple linkages to
surrounding communities through both the Pioneer Valley Transit Authority (PVTA) and the Franklin
Regional Transit Authority (FRTA). Bus lines operated by the PVTA travel roundtrip east-to-west along
Route 9 to and from Amherst, Hadley and South Hadley. These fixed routes run hourly throughout the
day and primarily serve Five College commuters. Bus stops are located in both high-volume sections of
the city as well intermittent locations along served routes. A PVTA bus route runs between downtown
Northampton and downtown Florence during regular business hours. A PVTA bus route runs between
downtown Northampton and the Holyoke Mall. Neighboring Easthampton has two bus routes that
connect with Northampton, PVTA’s Nashawannuck Express, which operates as a flex route shuttle, and a
PVTA bus route.
A bus route maintained by FRTA runs between Northampton and Greenfield during regular business
hours. The PVTA also provides demand-response transportation services for the elderly and disabled
residents within their jurisdiction, which includes Northampton.
Public Drinking Water Supply
City Water is available to Florence, Bay State, Leeds, Village Hill and Northampton and along those
routes where development has occurred. The Northampton Department of Public Works provides
potable water to approximately 8,705 customers, through 8,534 service connections. These connections
include approximately 189 commercial, 17 industrial, 98 institutional and 29 municipal facilities, and
over 8,000 residential services. Outlying developed areas of Northampton are served by private wells.
In 2019, approximately 99 percent of the drinking water supply came from three surface water
reservoirs and watersheds: the Francis P. Ryan and West Whately Reservoirs and watersheds, located in
Whately, Williamsburg and Conway, and the Mountian Street Reservoir and watershed, located in
Williamsburg, Hatfield and Whately. The City owns, operates and maintains a water filtration plant in
Williamsburg that treats and disinfects drinking water from these sources prior to distribution.
Additionally, Northampton gets approximately 1 percent of its drinking water supply from wells in the
Florence section of Northampton. These wells have the capacity to provide up to half of the City’s supply
under demand, and have chlorination systems installed. In 2018, the dam creating the Upper Roberts
Meadow Reservoir was removed for disinfection.
In 2018, the high hazard dam creating the Upper Roberts Meadow Reservoir in Leeds, the long
abandoned, original water supply for the City, was removed. The Middle and Lower Roberts Meadow
Reservoirs downstream are also former water supply reservoirs that remain but are no longer
10 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
connected to the water distribution system. The Middle Roberts Meadow Reservoir could be used as a
source of water for fire suppression in an emergency.
The primary water supply for the City is delivered through two transmission mains, a 36-inch main
installed in 1993 below established roadways and a 20-inch cross-country main installed in 1901 and
field-lined in 1958 that generally follows Beaver Brook from Route 9 to the Mountain Street reservoir
with difficult and wet access that also traverses private property. Both mains are in service and needed
for water distribution.
According to the most recent Open Space, Recreation & Multi-Use Trail Plan (2018-2025), the City
supplies 1.25 billion gallons of water to customers, or an average of 3.4 million gallons per day, with a
maximum peak of 4.8 million gallons. The most water used in one day was 3.96 million gallons. The
design capacity of the water filtration plant is 6.5 million gallons, which can easily meet the city’s peak
demand.
During dry summer months, the City’s DPW implements a water use restriction policy in order to comply
with the MassDEP’s requirements. DEP requires that water use be restricted when average daily stream
flow in the Mill River drops below 26.3 cubic feet per second for a 3-day period or when the State issues
a drought advisory. The Water Use Restriction can be lifted when the stream flow average meets or
exceeds the minimum flow for 7 consecutive days. When a water use restriction is in place, there is a
ban on non-essential outdoor watering. The City ended the water use restriction most recently in
December 2019.
The City has and continues to work with surrounding communities to acquire water supply lands and
jointly preserve the watersheds. Additionally, much of Hatfield’s drinking water aquifer is located in
Northampton, and the City has aggressively regulated this area and acquired open space to protect
Hatfield’s water supply.
Sewer Service
Northampton, Bay State, Leeds, Village Hill, and Florence have municipal sewer services, as do the
connecting points in between. The City has a sewer treatment facility that treats effluent from both
Northampton and neighboring Williamsburg, including institutional, commercial, and industrial users.
Wastewater receives preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, and disinfection.
Sludge is separated and dewatered and then trucked outside of Northampton for final disposal.
Wastewater is discharged to the Connecticut River via outfall pipe.
The city has roughly 110 miles of sanitary sewer pipes. Outlying developed areas of Northampton are
served by private septic systems regulated by the Board of Health.
Schools
Public and private schools in Northampton include Bridge Street School, Jackson Street School, Leeds
School, Ryan Road School, Smith College Campus School, Smith College, Montessori School of
Northampton, Solomon Schechter Day School, JFK Middle School, Northampton High School, and Smith
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 11
Vocational & Agricultural High School. Smith Vocational & Agricultural High School serves an emergency
regional shelter serving both humans and pets. During the first phase of Covid-19 emergency, the
Northampton High School was used as an emergency shelter for homeless populations.
Natural Resources
The rich alluvial floodplains of the Connecticut River define Northampton’s eastern boundary. In the
bottomlands, wetlands and farm fields continue to provide the same scenic and ecological benefits to
Northampton that have existed for thousands of years since the end of the last ice age (and the
corresponding formation and draining of Glacial Lake Hitchcock) some 12,000 years ago. On the city’s
western boundary, the foothills of the Berkshires begin their slow, steady rise to the peak of Mount
Greylock. To the north and south, the Connecticut River Valley stretches north to Vermont and South to
Connecticut. These features, the river, the valley and the hills, frame Northampton and provide a home
to not only Northampton’s dynamic population of more than 28,000 individuals but also to hundreds of
species of flora and fauna.
Forests
Approximately fifty percent of Northampton is covered by a mixed deciduous forest, including oak,
maple, and beech, with smaller coniferous forests, including spruce, pine, and hemlock. Forests provide
an abundance of timber, opportunities for recreation, wildlife habitat, the benefits of climate
moderation, and the protection of water quality. The City’s Tree Warden has planted over 1,000 trees
since 2016, bolstering a robust urban forest that helps to mitigate the impacts of climate change. The
forest and intermixed agricultural land also provide a visually pleasant landscape for residents and
visitors too. The City's forests are mainly closed-canopied and middle-aged, having a great diversity of
species, but no diversity of horizontal or vertical structural.
Tree species and forest composition reflect this variety of landforms. Because of Northampton’s
latitude, those species associated with northern hardwood forests are most common. In Northampton’s
floodplain, silver maple, cottonwood, elms, along with other species common to frequently inundated
areas, are common. In higher, drier terrain, oaks, hickories, maples, black birch and scarlet oak are
common species in fields, front lawns and gentle hills. On shady hillsides, it is commons to find oaks,
hickories, white birch and other species associated with transitional hardwood forests.
The forests and wetlands that fill Northampton’s landscape also play host to a wide variety of wildlife.
Bear, bobcat, minx, fishers, moose and deer have all been sighted in Northampton, and the city’s
wetlands and water bodies are important homes for salamanders, frogs, turtles and snakes as well as
many fish species.
Water Resources
Northampton water resources include open water bodies, wetlands, floodplain, and drinking water
supplies and aquifers. These water resources are all sensitive ecological resources, but they also provide
12 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
excellent agricultural, forest, open space, scenic, recreation, and wildlife habitat resources for the city’s
residents.
Rivers and Streams
The Connecticut River forms Northampton’s eastern boundary and is the city’s most significant river.
The Mill River and the Manhan River are two smaller, but important, rivers for the City to monitor and
protect. The Mill River runs parallel to downtown Northampton, was once diverted, and has had an
Army Corps levee system constructed to reduce flooding risk. The Connecticut River and Mill River both
have floodplains, and each has a pumping station that works in conjunction with their levee systems.
The Manhan River flows through Northampton’s southwestern edge, enters Easthampton, and then
drains into the Connecticut River Oxbow. There are 9 major brooks: Marble Brook, Turkey Brook,
Beaver Brook, Day Brook, Roberts Meadow Brook, Clark Brook, Broad Brook, Hannum Brook and
Parsons Brook.
Wetlands
The City estimates that there are over 3,000 acres of wetlands in Northampton. Many, but certainly not
all, of the City’s wetlands are mapped by the National Wetlands Inventory with local supplemental data
extracted from permit filings.
Beaver Dams
Beaver activity continues to be an issue in Northampton. Wetland areas have been flooded by beaver
dam construction. As a result, their vegetation has changed from forested wetland to marshy habitat.
Sometimes beaver activity is detrimental to property, causing problems for local land owners (e.g.,
flooding of wells, septic systems, lawns, out-buildings, and roadways). Affected individuals must contact
the Board of Health and Conservation Commission for advice and permission to alleviate the beaver
problem.
Aquifers
Northampton has a public drinking water aquifer located in Florence. The City also shares an aquifer
with Hatfield, which is in the Broad Brook area of Northampton, and neighboring Easthampton’s aquifer
is located in the West Farms area of Northampton.
The Northampton Aquifer has three delineated Zone II recharge areas. A Zone II is area of an aquifer
that contributes to a well under the most server pumping and recharge conditions that can be
anticipated. Threats to Zone II recharge areas can include contamination from residential use, roadways,
hazardous materials, oil contamination and agricultural uses.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 13
3: HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS
This chapter examines the natural hazards which are identified as likely to affect Northampton in more
detail, and includes a summary of disasters that have affected or could affect Northampton. In order to
identify natural hazards of concern for the Plan Update, the Committee and its consulting team
reviewed the 2015 Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan, the 2018 Massachusetts State Hazard
Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Plan (SHMCAP), available hazard mapping, and other weather-
related databases. Historical research and conversations with local officials and emergency management
personnel were also used to identify and profile the natural hazards which are most likely to have an
impact on the City.
The assessment conducted for the former HMP recognized the following 8 natural hazards that could
potentially impact Northampton:
• Floods
• Severe snowstorms / ice storms
• Hurricanes
• Severe thunderstorms / wind / tornadoes
• Wildfires / brushfires
• Earthquakes
• Dam failure / levee breech
• Drought
All of the hazards identified and assessed in the 2015 HMP
were determined to be relevant for the 2020 Plan Update.
However, some of these hazards were reclassified to align
with the 2018 SHMCAP (for example, “hurricanes” was
expanded to include “hurricanes/ tropical storms,” and
severe snowstorms / ice storms” was renamed to “severe
winter storm/ nor’easter”) and three new hazards—extreme
temperatures, invasive species, and pandemic—were
added.
The resulting refined list of hazards profiled in this plan
update is as follows:
Flooding
Dam failure / Levee Breech
Drought
Extreme Temperatures
Wildfires / Brushfires
Invasive Species
In light of the COVID-19 pandemic
that took the world by storm during
the development of this plan update,
the Northampton HMP Committee
elected to address “pandemic” as an
additional hazard that affects the
City. However, a complete hazards
vulnerability analysis was not within
the scope of this update due to
sensitivity and data limitations as it
pertains to this hazard. For additional
information, MEMA maintains the
State Comprehensive Emergency
Management Plan (CEMP) as well as
other plans that deal with the specific
response and mitigation aspects of
and non-natural disasters, crime, and
other emergencies.
14 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Hurricanes/ Tropical Storms
Severe Winter Storm / Nor'Easter
Severe thunderstorms / Wind / Tornadoes
Earthquake
Pandemic
Each of these hazards was assessed by the Committee for location of occurrence, extent, previous
occurrences, and probability of future events. (See Appendix D for sources, methodology.) All hazard
profiles were updated for the 2020 Plan Update with any new available information, and data from the
2015 HMP were retained where it was appropriate and still deemed current. The resulting hazard risk
ranking is presented in Table 2 later this chapter.
Natural Hazard Analysis Methodology
This chapter examines the hazards which are identified in the Massachusetts State Hazard Mitigation
and Climate Adaptation Plan and by the Northampton HMP Update Steering Committee as likely to
affect Northampton. The analysis is organized into the following sections: Hazard Description, Location,
Extent, Previous Occurrences, Probability of Future Events, Impact, and Vulnerability. A description of
each of these analysis categories is provided below.
Hazard Description
The natural hazards identified for Northampton’s 2020 HMP update are: flooding, dam failure / levee
breach, drought, extreme temperatures, wildfire/brushfire, invasive species, hurricane/ tropical storm,
severe winter storm/nor’easter, severe thunderstorms / wind / tornado, earthquake, and
pandemic/epidemic. Many of these hazards result in similar impacts to a community. For example,
hurricanes, tornadoes and severe snowstorms may cause wind-related damage.
Location
Location refers to the geographic areas within the planning area that are affected by the hazard. Some
hazards affect the entire planning area universally, while others apply to a specific portion, such as a
floodplain or area that is susceptible to wild fires. Classifications are based on the area that would
potentially be affected by the hazard, on the following scale:
Percentage of City Impacted by Natural Hazard
Land Area Affected by Occurrence Percentage of City Impacted
Large More than 50% of the city affected
Medium 10 to 50% of the city affected
Small Less than 10% of the city affected
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 15
Extent
Extent describes the strength or magnitude of a hazard. Where appropriate, extent is described using an
established scientific scale or measurement system. Other descriptions of extent include water depth,
wind speed, and duration.
Previous Occurrences
Previous hazard events that have occurred are described. Depending on the nature of the hazard, events
listed may have occurred on a local, state-wide, or regional level. Where information is available on
emergency costs for specific events, that information is provided.
Probability of Future Events
The likelihood of a future event for each natural hazard was classified according to the following scale:
Frequency of Occurrence and Annual Probability of Given Natural Hazard
Frequency of Occurrence Probability of Future Events
Very High 70-100% probability in the next year
High 40-70% probability in the next year
Moderate 10-40% probability in the next year
Low 1-10% probability in the next year
Very Low Less than 1% probability in the next year
Impact
Impact refers to the effect that a hazard may have on the people and property in the community, based
on the assessment of extent described above. Impacts are classified according to the following scale:
Extent of Impacts, Magnitude of Multiple Impacts of Given Natural Hazard
Extent of
Impacts Magnitude of Multiple Impacts
Catastrophic Multiple deaths and injuries possible. More than 50% of property in affected area
damaged or destroyed. Complete shutdown of facilities for 30 days or more.
Critical Multiple injuries possible. More than 25% of property in affected area damaged or
destroyed. Complete shutdown of facilities for more than 1 week.
Limited Minor injuries only. More than 10% of property in affected area damaged or
destroyed. Complete shutdown of facilities for more than 1 day.
16 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Minor Very few injuries, if any. Only minor property damage and minimal disruption on
quality of life. Temporary shutdown of facilities.
Vulnerability
Sectors Assessed
A number of key sectors were evaluated as part of the risk assessment for each of the hazards profiled
in the sections below. These sectors are introduced here and are included in the hazard profiles where
appropriate and where sufficient data allowed.
Populations
The impacts on human health, particularly vulnerable populations, were considered by the Committee
and incorporated into the hazard profiles where possible. The risk analysis relied on U.S. Census data
and stakeholder information regarding frontline and vulnerable populations (including but not limited to
disabled, low-income, homeless and single room occupancy (SRO) residents, and low English proficiency
populations) that could potentially be more severely impacted by each hazard. Among other factors,
these populations may require extra time or outside assistance during evacuations or during events that
cause power outages or isolation, and are considered to be more likely to seek or require emergency
services. They are also more likely to live in risk-prone areas with poor infrastructure and higher levels of
air pollution.
Vulnerability is influenced by three factors: exposure or contact with the hazard; sensitivity or degree to
which people or communities are affected by the exposure to the hazard; and capacity to adapt or the
ability of communities, institutions, or people to adjust and respond to and recover from potential
hazards. The major health impacts from natural hazards and climate change include:
Heat-related illnesses and death from an increase in extreme temperatures and poor air
quality (SHMCAP, 2018).
Increases in food and waterborne illnesses and other infectious diseases from altering
geographic and seasonal distributions of existing vectors and vector-borne diseases
(SHMCAP, 2018).
Injuries and accidental premature death associated with extreme weather events. Extreme
weather events can result in acute health impacts, such as injuries and accidental premature
death during an event (e.g., drowning during floods). In addition, health impacts can also
occur during disaster preparation and post-event cleanup. Other impacts include damage to
property, destruction of assets, loss of infrastructure and public services, social and
economic impacts, environmental degradation, and other factors (SHMCAP, 2018).
Exacerbation of chronic diseases (SHMCAP, 2018).
Mental health and stress-related disorders ranging from minimal stress and distress
symptoms to clinical disorders such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress, and
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 17
suicidality. Specific groups of people who are at higher risk for distress and other adverse
mental health consequences from exposure to climate-related or weather-related disasters
include children, the elderly, women (especially pregnant and post-partum women), people
with preexisting mental illness, the economically disadvantaged, the homeless, and first
responders. Populations living in areas most susceptible to specific climate change events
are at increased risk for adverse mental health outcomes (SHMCAP, 2018).
In most natural hazard events, the vulnerability of a population is largely dependent on local
preparedness and availability of human resources for social services staffing and supplies distribution.
While this Hazard Mitigation Plan does not aim to recommend specific emergency preparedness and
response activities, it should be noted that preparing for emergencies by training a large group of public
and professional responders to ensure continuity of operations during a hazard event can be a critical
tool for mitigating the overall impacts of any hazard event.
Built Environment
The built environment sector includes all buildings in Northampton including critical facilities owned by
the municipality and critical infrastructure sectors that provide or link to key lifeline services, social
welfare, and economic development. Assessments were based on assessor’s data of the total value of all
structures in Northampton ($2,742,056,662.00 in 2014, the most recent year for which data was
available according to MassGIS L3 data), along with the median value of a home in Northampton
($321,900 based on median value of owner-occupied housing units, 2014-2018 American Community
Survey). The critical facilities assessed were derived from the critical facilities inventory as updated by
the Northampton HMP Committee. The facility types include police facilities, fire facilities, hospitals,
emergency operation centers, schools, and more. Other critical infrastructure sectors including
transportation facilities, water infrastructure, etc. were assessed when applicable and where
information was available.
Natural Resources and Environment
The natural resources and environment sector includes land-based assets in the city. It also includes key
habitats and natural landscapes documented in the Northampton’s BioMap 2 (Conserving the
Biodiversity of Massachusetts in a Changing World) and species identified in the State’s Wildlife Action
Plan as being present in Northampton.
Economy
Economic impacts include economic loss resulting from damage to critical facilities, the built
environment, municipal resources, natural resources, and other sectors. Many sectors of the economy
are dependent on the integrity of natural resources. For example, if a major recreation area is damaged
beyond repair by a storm, that property will no longer attract tourists and the local economy may
experience a loss of revenue from tourism and recreation. Other impacts include loss of businesses that
do not return after a major catastrophic event and the loss of property tax revenue that could result
from a major loss of homes and/or businesses from a disaster.
18 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Climate Change and Natural Hazards
With each update of the Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan, the planning team widens the lens
through which natural hazards are assessed with regards to climate change, or the statistically
significant variation in climate data or patterns over multiple decades due to climate variability or
human activity. The Northeast Climate Adaptation Science Center (NE CASC) developed downscaled
climate data that was used in the development of the 2018 SHMPCAP, forming a new basis and format
for the categorization of natural hazards as they relate to the primary climate change interactions
discussed in this section.
The risk assessment in this 2020 Northampton HMP Update refers to the 2018 SHMCAP analysis and
incorporates climate change interactions into each hazard assessment. A categorization of traditional
natural hazards, within the context of climate change, is included below to demonstrate the connections
between traditional natural hazard analysis and climate change projections. This categorization also
aligns with the four climate change categories included on the Commonwealth’s resilient MA Climate
Change Clearinghouse website (http://www.resilientma.org/). Those categories are illustrated as
follows.
Changes in Precipitation: Changes in the amount, frequency, and timing of precipitation—including
both rainfall and snowfall—are occurring across the globe as temperatures rise and other climate
patterns shift in response.
Sea Level Rise: Climate change will drive rising sea levels, and rising seas will have wide-ranging impacts
on communities, natural resources, and infrastructure along the Commonwealth’s 1,519 tidal shoreline
miles.
Rising Temperatures: Average global temperatures have risen steadily in the last 50 years, and scientists
warn that the trend will continue unless greenhouse gas emissions are significantly reduced. The 9
warmest years on record all occurred in the last 20 years (2017, 2016, 2015, 2014, 2013, 2010, 2009,
2005, and 1998), according to the U.S. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
Extreme Weather: Climate change is expected to increase extreme weather events across the globe, as
well as right here in Massachusetts. There is strong evidence that storms—from heavy downpours and
blizzards to tropical cyclones and hurricanes—are becoming more intense and damaging, and can lead
to devastating impacts for residents across the state.
The hazards presented in this risk assessment, and the order in which they appear, are based on the
taxonomy presented in Table 1 below.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 19
Table 1. Climate Change and Natural Hazard Taxonomy
Primary
Climate Change
Interaction
Natural Hazard
Other Climate
Change
Interactions
Representative Climate Change Impacts
Changes in
Precipitation
Flooding Extreme
Weather
Flash flooding, urban flooding, drainage
system impacts (natural and human-made),
lack of groundwater recharge, impacts to
drinking water supply, public health impacts
from mold and worsened indoor air quality,
vector-borne diseases from stagnant water,
episodic drought, changes in snow-rain ratios,
changes in extent and duration of snow cover,
degradation of stream channels and wetland
Drought
Rising
Temperatures,
Extreme
Weather
Dam Failure/
Levee Breach
Extreme
Weather
Rising
Temperatures
Extreme
Temperatures
N/A
Shifting in seasons (longer summer, early
spring, including earlier timing of spring peak
flow), increase in length of growing season,
increase of invasive species, ecosystem stress,
energy brownouts from higher energy
demands, more intense heat waves, public
health impacts from high heat exposure and
poor outdoor air quality, drying of streams and
wetlands, eutrophication of lakes and ponds
Wildfire/
Brushfire
Changes in
Precipitation
Invasive Species
Changes in
Precipitation,
Extreme
Weather
Extreme
Weather
Hurricane/
Tropical Storm
Rising
Temperatures,
Changes in
Precipitation
Increase in frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events, resulting in greater damage to
natural resources, property, and
infrastructure, as well as increased potential
for loss of life
Severe Winter
Storm /
Nor’easter
Severe
Thunderstorm /
Wind / Tornado
Non-Climate-
Influenced
Hazards
Earthquake Not Applicable There is no established correlation between
climate change and this hazard
Pandemic Not Applicable There is no established correlation between
climate change and this hazard
20 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Based on the above metrics and analyses, the Committee determined a hazard index rating for each
hazard. The hazard index ratings are based on a scale of 1 through 5 as follows:
• 1 – Highest risk
• 2 – High risk
• 3 – Medium risk
• 4 – Low risk
• 5 – Lowest risk
The ranking is qualitative and is based, in part, on local knowledge of past experiences with each type of
hazard. The size and impacts of a natural hazard can be unpredictable. However; many of the mitigation
strategies currently in place and many of those proposed for implementation can be applied to the
expected natural hazards, regardless of their unpredictability.
Table 2. Hazard Identification and Analysis for Northampton
Type of Hazard Location of
Occurrence
Probability of
Future Events Impact Hazard Risk Index
Rating
Flooding Medium High Limited (with loss of
key transportation
routes)
2 - High risk
Dam Failure /
Levee Breach
Medium Low Critical 3 - Medium risk
Drought Large Low Minor 4 - Low risk
Extreme
Temperatures
Large High Limited 2 – High Risk
Wildfire /
Brushfire
Medium Low Minor 4 - Low risk
Invasive Species Medium High Minor 4 – Low Risk
Hurricane/
Tropical Storm
Large Moderate Limited 3 - Medium risk
Severe Winter
Storm / Nor’easter
Large High Limited 3 - Medium risk
Severe
Thunderstorm /
Wind / Tornado
Small Severe
thunderstorms:
Moderate
Winds: Moderate
Tornadoes:
Low
Limited Severe
thunderstorms:
4 – Low Risk
Winds: 3 – Medium
Risk
Tornadoes:
4 – Low risk
Earthquake Large Low Limited 4 - Low risk
Pandemic Large Low Critical 3 – Medium Risk
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 21
Flooding
Hazard Description
There are three major types of storms that can generate flooding in Northampton:
• Continental storms are typically low-pressure systems that can be either slow or fast
moving. These storms originate from the west and occur throughout the year.
• Coastal storms, also known as nor’easters, usually occur in late summer or early fall and
originate from the south. The most severe coastal storms, hurricanes, occasionally reach
Massachusetts and generate very large amounts of rainfall.
• Thunderstorms form on warm, humid summer days and cause locally significant rainfall,
usually over the course of several hours. These storms can form quickly and are more
difficult to predict than continental and coastal storms.
A floodplain is the relatively flat, lowland area adjacent to a river, lake or stream. Floodplains serve an
important function, acting like large “sponges” to absorb and slowly release floodwaters back to surface
waters and groundwater. Over time, sediments that are deposited in floodplains develop into fertile,
productive farmland like that found in the Connecticut River Valley. In the past, floodplain areas were
also often seen as prime locations for development. Industries were located on the banks of rivers for
access to hydropower. Residential and commercial development occurred in floodplains because of
their scenic qualities and proximity to the water. Although periodic flooding of a floodplain area is a
natural occurrence, past and current development and alteration of these areas will result in flooding
that is a costly and frequent hazard.
Floods can be classified as one of two types: flash floods and general floods.
• Flash floods are the product of heavy, localized precipitation in a short time period over a
given location. Flash flooding events typically occur within minutes or hours after a period of
heavy precipitation, after a dam or levee failure, or from a sudden release of water from an
ice jam. Most often, flash flooding is the result of a slow-moving thunderstorm or the heavy
rains from a hurricane. In rural areas, flash flooding often occurs when small streams spill
over their banks. However, in urbanized areas, flash flooding is often the result of clogged
storm drains (leaves and other debris) and the higher amount of impervious surface area
(roadways, parking lots, roof tops).
• General floods may last for several days or weeks and are caused by precipitation over a
longer time period in a particular river basin. Excessive precipitation within a watershed of a
stream or river can result in flooding particularly when development in the floodplain has
obstructed the natural flow of the water and/or decreased the natural ability of the
groundcover to absorb and retain surface water runoff (e.g., the loss of wetlands and the
higher amounts of impervious surface area in urban areas).
22 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) data on flood
insurance policies, repetitive loss (RL) properties, and severe
repetitive loss (SRL) properties are useful for determining the
location of areas vulnerable to flood and severe storm
hazards. A RL property is a property for which two or more
flood insurance claims of more than $1,000 have been paid by
the NFIP within any 10-year period since 1978. A SRL property
is defined as one that “has incurred flood-related damage for
which 4 or more separate claims payments have been paid
under flood insurance coverage, with the amount of each
claim payment exceeding $5,000 and with cumulative amount
of such claims payments exceeding $20,000; or for which at
least 2 separate claims payments have been made with the
cumulative amount of such claims exceeding the reported
value of the property” (FEMA). It should be noted that policy
and claim data reflect the time period from 1978 to 2019,
while RL and SRL values are calculated using a rolling 10-year
period.
Location
FEMA last published flood insurance rate maps for Hampshire
County in the late 1970’s, and the City of Northampton
adopted those maps to stay compliant with NFIP participation
and for residents to remain eligible to buy flood hazard
insurance through NFIP.
The Critical Facilities and Past Hazard Areas map for the City of
Northampton shows the 100-year and 500-year flood zones
identified by FEMA flood maps. The 100-year flood zone is the
area that will be covered by water as a result of a flood that
has a one percent chance of occurring in any given year. Likewise, the 500-year flood has a 0.2 percent
chance of occurring in any given year. In Northampton, the 100-year flood zone covers narrow bands of
level floodplain land along the Mill River, the Mill River Diversion, Basset Brook / Parsons Brook, Broad
Brook, Manhan Brook, Roberts Meadow Brook, and the Connecticut River. In several areas, the flood
zone widens out to encompass farmland, some residential land, and industrial lands. There are also
significant areas of localized flooding, including on Lower Elm Street and Avis Circle.
When ice jams occur, water flow can be backed up in the Connecticut River and Mill River and flood
nearby low lying lands.
The National Flood Insurance Program has produced maps that identify floodplains across America. The
following waterbodies have been designated as contributing to flooding in Northampton:
In 2019, FEMA initiated a Risk
Mapping, Assessment, and
Planning (RiskMAP) Discovery
process for the Middle Connecticut
Watershed – the first step in a
process to update the effective
Flood Insurance Rate Maps in the
region. The project is now moving
into the next phase of the RiskMAP
study which includes engineering-
related activities and development
of Preliminary FIRMs, which will be
distributed to the communities
upon completion of the revisions.
New mapping can be used for
community floodplain
management activities, local land
use discussions, all-hazard
mitigation planning, and
identification of mitigation
strategies, as well as providing a
basis for more informed community
development. The preliminary
maps for Northampton are
expected to be issued for public
comment in 2021, with formal
issuance in 2022 followed by local
adoption.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 23
(1) Mill River
(2) Mill River Diversion
(3) Parsons Brook / Basset Brook
(4) Broad Brook
(5) Marble Brook
(6) Connecticut River
(7) Roberts Meadow Brook
(8) Manhan River
Based on an approximate flood elevation at Route 5 in downtown Northampton of 124’ MSL for the
100-year flood (FEMA A Zone), roughly 3,960 acres or 18% of Northampton including 167 acres of
downtown could be affected by flooding of the Connecticut River alone. Some other areas outside of
the mapped flood zone may still be subject to local flooding and to larger rarer storm events. Therefore,
the percentage of City impacted by the flood hazard is considered to be “Medium” (10 to 25 percent of
the City).
Extent
The observed 1971 - 2000 average annual precipitation for Northampton and surrounding areas in the
Connecticut River watershed is 46.4 inches, with the majority of rainfall occurring in the spring and
summer. Relative to this baseline, the total annual precipitation in this watershed is expected to
increase by 1.3” to 6.2” by 2050, and winter precipitation is expected to increase by up to 25% by mid-
century, and by up to 37% by 2100 (resilient MA, 2018).
Water levels in Northampton’s rivers, streams, and wetlands rise and fall seasonally and during high
rainfall events. High water levels are typical in spring, due to snowmelt and ground thaw. This is the
period when flood hazards are normally expected. Low water levels occur in summer due to high
evaporation and plant uptake (transpiration). At any time, heavy rainfall may create conditions that
raise water levels in rivers and streams above bank full stage, which then overflow adjacent lands.
The following are the historical flooding crests, or highest recorded water levels, for the Mill River. The
River’s minor flood stage is 11 feet, a height which it has reached 22 times in Northampton since 1950.
The River’s action stage is 9 feet, a height which has been reached 16 times in Northampton since 1950.
Three of the top 7 recorded crest elevations have occurred in the past 5 years.
24 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 3. Historical Crests for the Mill River in
Northampton
Rank Date Height Stage
1 8/28/11 16.42 ft Minor
flooding
2 4/16/07 15.58 ft Minor
flooding
3 10/9/05 13.72 ft Minor
flooding
4 2/25/16 13.47 ft Minor
flooding
5 10/30/17 12.80 ft Minor
flooding
6 4/3/05 12.73 ft Minor
flooding
7 9/30/15 12.32 ft Minor
flooding
8 3/7/11 12.26 ft Minor
flooding
9 9/29/11 12.2 ft Minor
flooding
10 9/28/03 12.11 ft Minor
flooding
11 3/31/10 11.83 ft Minor
flooding
12 3/9/08 11.81 ft Minor
flooding
13 8/19/55 11.78 ft Minor
flooding
14 12/21/18 11.64 ft Minor
flooding
15 12/12/08 11.55 ft Minor
Table 3. Historical Crests for the Mill River in
Northampton
Rank Date Height Stage
flooding
16 9/7/11 11.5 ft Minor
flooding
17 9/17/99 11.42 ft Minor
flooding
18 9/8/11 11.38 ft Minor
flooding
19 12/8/11 11.27 ft Minor
flooding
20 12/21/12 11.18 ft Minor
flooding
21 9/18/18 11.04 ft Minor
flooding
22 6/6/82 10.98 ft Action stage
23 10/15/05 10.81 ft Action stage
24 11/3/18 10.81 ft Action stage
25 2/14/08 10.58 ft Action stage
26 11/9/06 10.47 ft Action stage
27 3/23/10 10.46 ft Action stage
28 4/5/84 10.42 ft Action stage
29 5/13/06 10.39 ft Action stage
30 10/28/06 10.3 ft Action stage
31 12/27/09 10.29 ft Action stage
32 4/24/05 10.27 ft Action stage
33 2/7/08 10.11 ft Action stage
34 10/25/05 10.02 ft Action stage
35 10/15/55 9.81 ft Action stage
36 3/31/51 9.38 ft Action stage
37 9/12/60 9.1 ft Action stage
Source: National Weather Service1
The following are the historical flooding crests for the Connecticut River. The major flood stage for the
river is 120 feet, which has been reached three times since 1935. The moderate flood stage is 115 feet,
1 NWS, 2020.
https://water.weather.gov/ahps2/river.php?wfo=box&wfoid=18682&riverid=205004&pt%5B%5D=1459
08&allpoints=145908%2C146659&data%5B%5D=impacts&data%5B%5D=stage&data%5B%5D=crests
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 25
which has been reached 16 times since 1935. The minor flood stage is 112 feet, which has been reached
64 times since 1935. The action stage is 110 feet, which has been reached 11 times since 1935.
Table 4. Historical Crests of the Connecticut River
in Northampton
Rank Date Height Stage
1 03/19/1936 129.40 Major Flood
2 09/22/1938 125.00 Major Flood
3 05/31/1984 120.80 Major Flood
4 04/06/1960 119.90 Moderate Flood
5 01/01/1949 118.60 Moderate Flood
6 04/01/1987 118.00 Moderate Flood
7 03/23/1948 117.70 Moderate Flood
8 03/29/1953 117.60 Moderate Flood
9 08/30/2011 117.16 Moderate Flood
10 05/05/1940 117.0 Moderate Flood
11 10/09/2005 116.3 Moderate Flood
12 03/15/1977 116.2 Moderate Flood
13 06/03/1952 116.0 Moderate Flood
14 04/03/1976 115.7 Moderate Flood
15 04/23/1969 115.5 Moderate Flood
16 04/01/1951 115.4 Moderate Flood
17 04/24/1958 115.3 Moderate Flood
18 03/24/1968 115.2 Moderate Flood
19 05/01/1956 115.0 Moderate Flood
20 07/02/1973 114.9 Flood Stage
21 04/19/1982 114.8 Flood Stage
22 04/07/1952 114.8 Flood Stage
23 03/27/1979 114.6 Flood Stage
24 04/17/1996 114.6 Flood Stage
Table 4. Historical Crests of the Connecticut River
in Northampton
Rank Date Height Stage
25 04/01/1998 114.6 Flood Stage
26 04/04/2005 114.6 Flood Stage
27 03/19/1973 114.6 Flood Stage
28 04/17/2007 114.5 Flood Stage
29 12/16/1983 114.5 Flood Stage
30 04/13/1947 114.4 Flood Stage
31 04/18/1994 114.4 Flood Stage
32 04/05/1959 114.3 Flood Stage
33 04/24/2001 114.3 Flood Stage
34 05/14/1996 114.2 Flood Stage
35 12/22/1973 114.2 Flood Stage
36 02/26/1981 114.2 Flood Stage
37 04/02/1962 114.1 Flood Stage
38 04/02/2004 114.0 Flood Stage
39 04/02/1977 114.0 Flood Stage
40 03/18/1990 113.9 Flood Stage
41 05/06/1972 113.9 Flood Stage
42 01/19/2006 113.7 Flood Stage
43 04/08/1984 113.7 Flood Stage
44 04/01/1986 113.5 Flood Stage
45 04/01/1993 113.5 Flood Stage
46 03/22/1945 113.5 Flood Stage
47 04/14/2011 113.4 Flood Stage
48 04/17/1993 113.4 Flood Stage
26 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 4. Historical Crests of the Connecticut River
in Northampton
Rank Date Height Stage
49 11/30/1959 113.4 Flood Stage
50 03/29/1976 113.4 Flood Stage
51 04/21/1972 113.3 Flood Stage
52 10/30/2003 113.2 Flood Stage
53 04/17/2014 113.1 Flood Stage
54 04/17/2019 113.0 Flood Stage
55 03/31/2003 113.0 Flood Stage
56 10/27/2005 113.0 Flood Stage
57 04/15/2008 112.9 Flood Stage
58 01/10/1998 112.9 Flood Stage
59 02/27/2016 112.8 Flood Stage
60 04/18/2011 112.8 Flood Stage
61 04/17/1955 112.8 Flood Stage
62 03/31/2010 112.8 Flood Stage
63 09/08/2011 112.7 Flood Stage
64 04/06/1950 112.7 Flood Stage
65 09/08/2011 112.7 Flood Stage
66 10/21/1975 112.6 Flood Stage
67 05/07/1989 112.5 Flood Stage
68 05/26/1979 112.5 Flood Stage
69 04/04/1967 112.5 Flood Stage
70 12/19/2000 112.4 Flood Stage
71 04/04/1963 112.4 Flood Stage
Table 4. Historical Crests of the Connecticut River
in Northampton
Rank Date Height Stage
72 04/16/1964 112.4 Flood Stage
73 01/28/1996 112.4 Flood Stage
74 04/08/1989 112.4 Flood Stage
75 04/23/2019 112.2 Flood Stage
76 03/24/2010 112.2 Flood Stage
77 04/06/1974 112.2 Flood Stage
78 05/05/1971 112.2 Flood Stage
79 04/26/1970 112.1 Flood Stage
80 08/20/1955 112.0 Flood Stage
81 04/19/1954 112.0 Flood Stage
82 04/11/1980 112.0 Flood Stage
83 12/13/2008 111.9 Action Stage
84 05/21/2006 111.8 Action Stage
85 12/01/1959 111.8 Action Stage
86 04/06/2000 111.8 Action Stage
87 04/05/1990 111.8 Action Stage
88 04/17/2002 111.7 Action Stage
89 12/26/1990 111.7 Action Stage
90 05/05/1983 111.6 Action Stage
91 04/04/1973 111.6 Action Stage
92 04/30/1988 111.6 Action Stage
93 12/26/2003 111.5 Action Stage
Source: National Weather Service2
2 NWS 2020,
https://water.weather.gov/ahps2/river.php?wfo=box&wfoid=18682&riverid=203796&pt%5B%5D=1444
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 27
The increased amount of strong precipitation events and overall increase in rainfall resulting from
climate change will likely result in more flooding in the region.
Previous Occurrences
Between 1954 and 2020, Hampshire County was included in five FEMA declared flood-related disasters
(DR) or emergencies (EM) classified as one or a combination of the following hazards: severe storms,
flooding, and inland and coastal flooding. Northampton may not have been impacted by all of these
events. According to the USACE Ice Jam Database, there were 233 reported ice jams in Massachusetts
between 1920 and 2020, 12 of which were located in Northampton as shown below (USACE, 2020).
Table 5. Historic Ice Jams in Northampton
River Jam date Water year Jam type Gage number Damages
Connecticut River 03/13/1936 1936 - ? ?
Mill River 02/08/1941 1941 - 01171500 ?
Mill River 01/02/1945 1945 - 01171500 ?
Connecticut River 03/01/1946 1946 Break-up ? ?
Mill River 03/09/1950 1950 - 01171500 ?
Mill River 01/23/1957 1957 - 01171500 ?
Mill River 01/22/1959 1959 - 01171500 ?
Mill River 01/25/1964 1964 - 01171500 ?
Bassett Brook 02/09/1965 1965 - 01171800 ?
Mill River 02/08/1965 1965 - 01171500 ?
Bassett Brook 02/13/1966 1966 - 01171800 ?
Bassett Brook 03/18/1968 1968 - 01171800 ?
Though not recorded in the USACE Ice Jam Database, the most significant ice jam event that has
occurred in Northampton since the last HMP update was in the winter of 2018 along the CT River. Large
blocks of floating ice caused significant damage to floating and permanent structures at the Connecticut
River Greenway. The gangway, docks, harbor, and railings were damaged to a cost of roughly $30,000. In
response, the City cut out the damaged rails, but Northampton Community Rowing has not yet replaced
the gangway and docks. The harbor, dug out when the New Haven and Northampton Canal was built in
the early 1800’s, silted in more than it had in all that time. The City has never dredged the area, and
based on the great expense of doing so it may never happen.
45&allpoints=143763%2C141260%2C143709%2C141640%2C144423%2C150552%2C141250%2C144445
%2C142863%2C142203%2C142784%2C142297%2C144501&data%5B%5D=crests
28 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Known flood events, including FEMA disaster declarations, which have impacted Northampton in the
past 100 years are identified in Table 6 below. Loss and impact information could vary depending on the
source. Therefore, the accuracy of monetary figures discussed is based only on the available information
identified during research for this plan.
Table 6. Floods Causing Significant Damage in Northampton, 1914-2020
Date Description Cost of Damage
Cost
Adjusted for
Inflation
9/18/2018
Flash Flood from Heavy Rain - Storm total
rainfall amounts reached two to five inches.
The Mill River reached Flood Stage at 11.04 ft.
NA NA
10/25/2017
Flood from Heavy Rain - In Northampton, flood
waters closed the intersection of Main and
Market Streets. A car was trapped by flood
waters on West Street near Smith College.
NA NA
8/5/2017
Flood from Heavy Rain - Flooding in
Northampton peaked between 2 and 3 PM. At
2:14 PM, State Street had between eight and
twelve inches of flooding between Bedford
Terrace and Summer Street. Several manhole
covers came off due to flooding, including three
on Elm Street near Childs Park and one on Old
South Street. At 2:27 PM, Jackson Street was
flooded and impassable, with the water two
feet deep on King Street near the Bluebonnet
Diner. At 2:40 PM, an underpass near North
Street and Market Street was flooded and
impassable.
NA NA
2/25/2016
Flood from Heavy Rain - In Northampton, the
Mill River overflowed its banks resulting in
flooding on Meadow Street in Leeds. On 2/27
CT River reached Flood Stage at 112.88 ft.
NA NA
9/30/2015
Flood from Heavy Rain - Twelve inches of water
was flooding portions of Route 9 near in
Haydenville the Northampton town line.
NA NA
8/27/2011 Hurricane Irene $96,400 $111,600
4/15/07 – 100-year flood Mill River Floodplain NA NA
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 29
Table 6. Floods Causing Significant Damage in Northampton, 1914-2020
Date Description Cost of Damage
Cost
Adjusted for
Inflation
4/16/07
5/13/2006 Heavy rainfall caused the Mill River to flood $5,000 $6,400
9/16/1999 Tropical Storm Floyd, Flooding to Mill River
Floodplain $900,000 $1,394,000
3/31/87/ -
4/7/87 Connecticut River Floodplain $126,000 $286,000
5/28/84 –
6/5/84 50-year flood Connecticut River Floodplain $377,000 $937,000
6/6/82 50 to 100 year flood Mill River Floodplain $104,000 $278,000
3/15/77 10-year flood; Connecticut River Floodplain $112,000 $447,000
4/6/60 10-year flood; Connecticut River Floodplain $38,000 $331,000
10/15/55 50 to 100-year flood Mill River Floodplain $48,000 $462,000
3/29/53 10-year flood Connecticut River Floodplain $40,000 $387,000
6/3/52 10-year flood Connecticut River Floodplain $38,000 $370,000
1/1/49 10-year flood Connecticut River Floodplain $37,000 $401,000
3/23/48 10-year flood Connecticut River Floodplain $32,000 $323,000
9/22/38 100-year flood Connecticut River Floodplain $81,500 $1,492,000
3/13/36 100-year flood Connecticut River Floodplain $200,000 $3,714,000
Northampton’s most significant flood event on record was the “the Great Flood” of March 1936. The
account of the flood is as follows:
An unusually cold and snowy winter, followed by a spell of warm and rainy weather, turned the normal
spring rising of the Connecticut River into an unprecedented natural catastrophe. The flood inundated
Hadley, Hatfield, Northampton, Holyoke, and Springfield, as well as smaller towns and villages along its
course. In Massachusetts alone, the Great Flood killed ten people and left 50,000 homeless. It was an
unmatched natural catastrophe for the Bay State, causing over $200,000,000 in damage in 1936 dollars.
30 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Probability of Future Events
Based upon previous data, there is a “high” chance (between 40 percent and 70 percent in the next
year) of flash flooding or general flooding occurring in Northampton. This is partly a function of the
presence of the Connecticut River and the Mill River, both of which contain significant floodplain
acreage in Northampton.
Flooding frequencies for the various floodplains in Northampton are defined by FEMA as the following:
• 10-year floodplain – 10 percent chance of flooding in any given year
• 25-year floodplain – 2.5 percent chance of flooding in any given year
• 100-year floodplain – 1 percent chance of flooding in any given year
• 500-year floodplain – 0.2 percent chance of flooding in any given year
In actuality, flooding occurs more frequently than this because the current FEMA-defined flood zones
are based on historical patterns of rainfall intensity and frequency, and do not take into account the
impacts that climate change will have on Northampton. Overall it is anticipated that the severity of
flood-inducing weather events and storms will increase as a result of climate change. Research has
shown that rainfall is increasingly concentrated into the most severe events (Easterling, 2017). While
trends in overall precipitation are less clear, the increase in severe rainfall events will exacerbate the risk
of localized flooding. In future years, it is likely that the currently designated 10-year, 25-year, 100-year
and 500-year floodplains of the Mill River and Connecticut River will flood more frequently due to
climate change.
The City of Northampton believes this to be a severe risk.
Impact
The City faces a “limited” impact, with 10 percent or less of total city area affected, from flooding.
The National Weather Service maintains water level gauges on the Mill River and Connecticut River in
Northampton, to monitor flooding. The NWS has various flooding classifications based on water level.
These classifications and their definitions are:
Action Stage - the stage which, when reached by a rising stream, represents the level where the NWS or
a partner/user needs to take some type of mitigation action in preparation for possible significant
hydrologic activity. The type of action taken varies for each gauge location. Gauge data should be closely
monitored by any affected people if the stage is above action stage.
Minor Flooding is defined to have minimal or no property damage, but possibly some public threat. A
Flood Advisory product is issued to advise the public of flood events that are expected not to exceed the
minor flood category. Examples of conditions that would be considered minor flooding include:
• water over banks and in yards
• no building flooded, but some water may be under buildings built on stilts (elevated)
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 31
• personal property in low lying areas needs to be moved or it will get wet
• water overtopping roads, but not very deep or fast flowing
• water in campgrounds or on bike paths
• inconvenience or nuisance flooding
• small part of the airstrip flooded, and aircraft can still land
• one or two homes in the lowest parts of town may be cut off or get a little water in the
crawl spaces or homes themselves if they are not elevated
Moderate Flooding is defined to have some inundation of structures and roads near the stream. Some
evacuations of people and/or transfer of property to higher elevations may be necessary. A Flood
Warning is issued if moderate flooding is expected during the event. Examples of conditions that would
be considered moderate flooding include:
• several buildings flooded with minor or moderate damage
• various types of infrastructure rendered temporarily useless (i.e. fuel tanks cannot be
reached due to high water, roads flooded that have no alternates, generator station
flooded)
• elders and those living in the lowest parts of the village are evacuated to higher ground
• access to the airstrip is cut off or requires a boat
• water over the road is deep enough to make driving unsafe
• gravel roads likely eroded due to current moving over them
• widespread flooding, but not deep enough to float ice chunks through town
• water deep enough to make life difficult, normal life is disrupted and some hardship is
endured
• airstrip closed
• travel is most likely restricted to boats
Major Flooding is defined to have extensive inundation of structures and roads. Significant evacuations
of people and/or transfer of property to higher elevations are necessary. A Flood Warning is issued if
major flooding is expected during the event. Examples of conditions that would be considered major
flooding include:
• many buildings flooded, some with substantial damage or destruction
• infrastructure destroyed or rendered useless for an extended period of time
• multiple homes are flooded or moved off foundations
• everyone in threatened area is asked to evacuate
• National Guard units assist in evacuation efforts
• erosion problems are extreme
• the airstrip, fuel tanks, and the generator station are likely flooded
• loss of transportation access, communication, power and/or fuel spills are likely
• fuel tanks may float and spill and possibly float downstream
• ice chunks floating through town that could cause structural damage
• high damage estimates and high degree of danger to residents
32 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Various critical facilities are at risk within Northampton’s floodplain:
100-year floodplain
• EPA Tier II Facility on Island Road in the Connecticut River Oxbow area
• The Northampton Airport
• Fair Grounds—potential gathering spot for thousands of people and livestock during the
Three County Fair. In addition, the area is also susceptible to localized flooding.
• Sections of Route 5, Mount Tom Road, and Route 10 at the South St bridge with the flood
control drop structure underneath, cutting off southbound access to the City.
• Waterlines and sewer lines mounted on the City’s bridges—a flood that destroyed a bridge
could result in a potential loss of services for residential populations.
• Road adjacent to the Mill River (causing destruction to road)
• Power substations at Smith College, King Street, and Route 5 at Easthampton line
500-year floodplain
• Group Home/Assisted Living Facility and Paradise Pond Transitional Apartments within the
Mill River’s floodplain on West Street
In addition, there are several facilities that are located outside the floodplain because of the City’s levee
system. Should this system fail, these facilities would be at risk:
• Power facilities located on West Street
• The City’s wastewater treatment facility
• Much of downtown
Localized flooding
The Hazard Mitigation Committee identified several points in the City as areas that flood frequently but
are outside of the community’s Flood Insurance Rate Map boundaries. The locations of these areas and
the impact of flooding to them are the following:
• Ice pond culvert on Route 66/Rocky Hill Road has a history of flooding and is on a primary
evacuation route.
• The intersections of Church Street, Stoddard Street, State Street, and Perkins Avenue to
Route 5 & 10.
• The area surrounding Elm Street, Riverside Drive, Nutting Avenue, Ormond Street, and
Federal Street.
• Austin Circle.
• Reservoir Road. The road was closed during Hurricane Irene.
• Denise Court area.
• King Street Brook.
• Elm Street Brook.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 33
• Williams Street Brook.
Flooding can also cause damage to bridges, especially the lowest bridges in the City which are located in
Florence at Pine Street and Meadow Street. Many water lines in the City are located on bridges and
damage to these could disrupt the water supply.
Vulnerability
Based on the above analysis, Northampton has a hazard index rating of “2 – high risk” for flooding.
There are approximately 4,150 acres of land within the FEMA mapped 100-year floodplain and 82 acres
of land within the 500-year floodplain within the City of Northampton. There are approximately 90
residential structures located within the 100-year flood plain in Northampton, with roughly 573 people
living in the 100-year flood plain and 132 people live in the 500-year flood plain.3 According to FEMA’s
Community Information System (CIS) reporting from April, 2020, there are only 76 residential structures
holding flood insurance through the National Flood Insurance Program. This may indicate that some
structures within the 100-year floodplain, one of the highest flood risk areas in town, may not have
insurance against flood damage.
Utilizing the City’s median home value of $321,900 (American Community Survey, 2014-2018), up to
$28,971,000 worth of damage could occur from a 100-year flood. The damage estimate is a rough
estimate and likely reflects a worst-case scenario. Computing more detailed damage assessments based
on assessor’s records is a labor-intensive task and beyond the scope of this project.
Areas where localized flooding has been a problem in the past will also be vulnerable to increased
flooding from climate change, though their risk is presumed to be moderate.
Population
Advance weather forecasting, blockades, and emergency alerts and warnings help to minimize the total
number of injuries and casualties that typically result from riverine flooding. However, even a relatively
low-level flood can be hazardous and can result in direct mortality to individuals interacting with the
flood zone. For example, while 6 inches of moving water can cause adults to fall, 1 foot to 2 feet of
water can sweep cars away. Downed powerlines, sharp objects in the water, or fast-moving debris that
may be moving in or near the water, all present an immediate danger to individuals in the flood zone.
Floodwater can also carry a wide range of infectious organisms from raw sewage and/or chemicals and
hazardous materials swept away from containment areas.
The most vulnerable populations exposed to the flood hazard include people with low socioeconomic
status, people over the age of 65, young children, people with medical needs, and those with low
3 These figures are carried forward from the 2015 HMP Update. Updated data on these figures was
unavailable for the 2020 update.
34 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
English language fluency. Populations that live or work in proximity to facilities that use or store toxic
substances are at greater risk of exposure to these substances during a flood event.
The increased flooding due to climate change will have disproportionate impacts to several special
populations in Northampton. The socioeconomic status of residents in the floodplains is lower than the
City as a whole, meaning that flooding will have more of an impact on lower income residents. Several
facilities that serve special populations are located near the City’s levee system, and would be within the
floodplain should the levee system be compromised. These facilities include: Salvo House, ServiceNet,
the Hampshire Dialysis Center, and the Northampton Senior Center. Flooding in this area will affect both
low-income and market rate housing development. Other locations that provide critical social services
or that support vulnerable populations are exposed to flooding, including the Meals on Wheels kitchen,
the bike path where it crosses under the train tracks, and the homeless tent encampment.
Built Environment and Economy
Buildings, infrastructure, and other elements of the built environment are vulnerable to inland flooding.
Buildings within the floodplain are highly vulnerable to inland flooding and are likely to become
increasingly vulnerable as riverine flooding increases due to climate change (resilient MA, 2018).
The intersections of Church Street, Stoddard Street, State Street, and Perkins Avenue to Route 5 & 10
are susceptible to localized flooding. This neighborhood is medium density residential. Approximately 18
structures could be affected by a flood incident. At a rate of 100 percent damage to 100 percent of the
structures, the estimated cost of repairing or replacing these properties would be $5,794,200.
The area surrounding Elm Street, Riverside Drive, Nutting Avenue, Ormond Street, and Federal Street is
susceptible to localized flooding. Approximately 68 structures could be affected by a flood incident. At
100 percent damage to 100 percent of the structures, the estimated cost of repairing or replacing would
be $21,889,200.
The City of Northampton’s levee protection system, designed after the 1936 Hurricane, is designed to
prevent flooding from up to a 500-year flood. The damage estimates above are based on one of two
scenarios: 1) the levee system is structurally compromised or 2) flooding occurs that exceeds the design
height of the levee system. Furthermore, flood control pump stations that are located at the WWTP are
fairly old and showing signs of wear. These pump stations are essential to the City’s standing flood
mitigation capabilities and if they failed, they could create severe damage to both the treatment plant
and the surrounding low-lying neighborhood.
The City is currently assessing the levee system to determine what changes are needed, if any, to allow
them to be FEMA certified. In addition, a Comprehensive Wastewater Management Plan (CWMP) was
completed and submitted to MassDEP in 2016. The CWMP recommended system-wide improvements
of approximately $80M over 20 years, with $30M of that in the first 5 years. As part of an initial project,
a conversion from gaseous chlorine to hypochlorite, mitigating a significant hazard, was completed in
2017. Other near-term upgrades would address daily and emergency power reliability issues, reducing
vulnerability of a failure.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 35
The impacts of climate change will increase the vulnerability of the nearly 600 people who currently live
in the 100-year flood plain and more than 100 people who live in the 500-year flood plain. More
damage will occur in areas too small to have FEMA floodplain designation and not already zoned
floodplain, such as Roberts Meadows Brook. Currently 284 people live in this area and could be affected.
Many of these areas already flood consistently, and so climate change will be potentially very damaging
to these areas. The City of Northampton believes these risks to be severe.
Flooding can cause direct damage to critical facilities and result in roadblocks and inaccessible streets
that impact the ability of public safety and emergency vehicles to respond to calls for service.
Gas stations located within the 100-year floodplain and the 500-year floodplain should take precautions
to ensure a flood event would not result in facility damage or environmental contamination from a gas
spill.
At a neighborhood to regional scale, highly developed areas and areas with high impervious surface
coverage may be most vulnerable to flooding. Even moderate development that results in as little as 3
percent impervious cover can lead to flashier flows and river degradation, including channel deepening,
widening, and instability (SHMCAP, 2018). Additionally, changes in precipitation will threaten key
infrastructure assets with flood and water damage. Climate change has the potential to impact public
and private services and business operations.
Most flood events that occur in Northampton are not accompanied by a FEMA Emergency or Disaster
declaration and, as a result, all costs associated with the events are borne by local City budgets. In FY19,
$97,751 was budgeted from Northampton’s Stormwater Enterprise Fund for flood. 4Any City response to
the events listed in the Previous Occurrences section above would have likely included payroll overtime
for personnel, and operational costs for electricity, natural gas, fuel, and repair and maintenance costs
for equipment, buildings, grounds, communication and supplies, and safety supplies. If the frequency of
flooding increases in future years, so will the financial burden on tax payers to support City response.
Natural Resources
Flooding is a natural environmental phenomenon. However, severe flood events can also result in
substantial damage to the environment and natural resources, particularly in areas where human
development has interfered with natural flood-related processes. As described earlier in this section,
severe weather events are expected to become more frequent as a result of climate change; therefore,
flooding that exceeds the adaptive capacity of natural systems and the built environment may occur
more often.
One common environmental effect of flooding is riverbank and soil erosion. Riverbank erosion occurs
when high, fast water flows scour the edges of the river, transporting sediment downstream and
reshaping the ecosystem. This process can clog riverbeds and streams, disrupting the water supply to
4 Information obtained from the Northampton DPW Director and the Financial Administrator, 2020.
36 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
downstream habitats. In Northampton, the FEMA SFHA overlaps with BioMap2 Critical Natural
Landscapes and Core Habitat along the banks of the Mill and CT Rivers, as well as along Marble Brook,
Bassett Brook, Parson’s Brook and Broad Brook. These areas are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of
bank destabilization and erosion from flooding.
Dam Failure / Levee Breach
Hazard Description
Dams and levees and their associated impoundments provide many benefits to a community, such as
water supply, recreation, hydroelectric power generation, and flood control. However, they also pose a
potential risk to lives and property. Dam or levee failure is not a common occurrence, but dams do
represent a potentially disastrous hazard. When a dam or levee fails, the potential energy of the stored
water behind the dam is released rapidly. Most dam or levee failures occur when floodwaters above
overtop and erode the material components of the dam. Water running between a levee and original
grade, and eroding dam materials, is also a potential risk. Often dam or levee breaches lead to
catastrophic consequences as the water rushes in a torrent downstream flooding, an area engineers
refer to as an “inundation area.” The number of casualties and the amount of property damage will
depend upon the timing of the warning provided to downstream residents, the number of people living
or working in the inundation area, and the number of structures in the inundation area.
Many dams in Massachusetts were built during the 19th Century without the benefit of modern
engineering design and construction oversight. Dams of this age can fail because of structural problems
due to age and/or lack of proper maintenance, as well as from structural damage caused by an
earthquake or flooding.
The Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation Office of Dam Safety is responsible for
regulating dams in the state (M.G.L. Chapter 253, Section 44 and the implementing regulations 302 CMR
10.00). To be regulated, these dams are in excess of 6 feet in height (regardless of storage capacity) and
have more than 15 acre feet of storage capacity (regardless of height). Dam safety regulations enacted
in 2005 transferred significant responsibilities for dams from the State of Massachusetts to dam owners,
including the responsibility to conduct dam inspections.
The City of Northampton’s levees are part of the City’s Flood Control System constructed by the Army
Corps of Engineers (USACE) between March 1939 and June 1941. The system is designed to protect a
large portion of the City against flooding from the Connecticut River and the Mill River. The City of
Northampton is responsible for maintenance and operation of the Northampton Flood Control System
and for maintaining compliance with standards set forth by the USACE. The USACE conducts annual
inspections of the Northampton Flood Control System.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 37
Location
There are 18 dams on public and private land in the City of Northampton, as well as one dam in West
Whately and one dam in Williamsburg impacting the City’s drinking water supply. In addition, levee
systems exist along the Mill River and Connecticut River. The names and hazard levels of the individual
structures are:
Table 7. Dams and Levees in Northampton or Affecting Northampton
Dam Street Name Hazard Level
Lower Roberts Meadow Dam Reservoir Road High
Middle Roberts Meadow Dam Reservoir Road High
Ryan Reservoir Dam West Whately High
Mountain Street Reservoir Dam Williamsburg High
Paradise Pond College Lane High
Chartpac Dam (Orange Dam) River Road Significant
Clear Falls Pool Dam Drury Lane Significant
Mill River Diversion Dam South Street Significant
Vistron Pro Corporation Dam Pine Street Significant
Country Club Dam (Cook Dam) Arch Street, Main Street Significant
Button Shop #2 Dam Main Street, Leeds Significant
Button Shop #1 Dam Main Street, Leeds Significant
Rocky Hill Pond Dam Rocky Hill Road Low
Fitzgerald Lake Dam North Farms Road Low
Mill River/Yankee Hill Ladd Avenue Low
Howards Ice Pond Dam Dimock Street Low
Vaznis Farm Pond Dam Unknown NA
Florence Ice Pond Dam Spring Street Extension NA
Look Park Dam North Main Street, Florence NA
Connecticut River levee system Along Connecticut River NA
Mill River levee system Along Mill River NA
Source: MassDEP 2019
The failure of a high hazard dam or flood control levee could affect a “medium” amount of the land area
in Northampton, or between 10 and 50 percent of the total land area.
The Connecticut River Flood Control System consists of approximately 4,800 linear feet of levee that
extends from Pomeroy Terrace to the high ground west of Route 5 (Pleasant Street/Mount Tom Road).
The levee has a maximum height of 23 feet. The Mill River Flood Control System consists of two levee
sections. The Smith College Levee is located along the east bank of the Mill River between Paradise Pond
Dam and West Street. The Diversion Levee extends from the Manhan Rail Trail to Hebert Avenue.
Combined, these two sections of levee are approximately 2,000 feet in length with a maximum height of
25 feet.
38 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
While the state does not evaluate the hazard level of levees, the Hazard Mitigation Committee assessed
both the Mill River levee system and Connecticut River levee system and determined the percent of City
affected by their failure to be 5 percent and 15 percent respectively, meaning they would affect a
"medium" amount of the total land area, but would flood some of the highest value areas in the city.
Extent
Often dam or levee breaches lead to catastrophic consequences as the water ultimately rushes in a
torrent downstream flooding an area engineers refer to as an “inundation area.” The number of
casualties and the amount of property damage will depend upon the timing of the warning provided to
downstream residents, the number of people living or working in the inundation area, and the number
of structures in the inundation area.
Dams in Massachusetts are assessed according to their risk to life and property. The state has three
hazard classifications for dams:
• High Hazard: Dams located where failure or improper operation will likely cause loss of life
and serious damage to homes, industrial or commercial facilities, important public utilities,
main highways, or railroads.
• Significant Hazard: Dams located where failure or improper operation may cause loss of life
and damage to homes, industrial or commercial facilities, secondary highways or railroads
or cause interruption of use or service of relatively important facilities.
• Low Hazard: Dams located where failure or improper operation may cause minimal
property damage to others. Loss of life is not expected.
Previous Occurrences
There have been no catastrophic dam or levee failures in Northampton in over a century. The scars of an
1874 failure of a dam upriver of Northampton which largely destroyed the Northampton village of
Leeds, however, remains a powerful reminder of the potential.
Probability of Future Events
Currently the frequency of dam failures is “very low” with a less than 1 percent chance of a dam failing
in any given year. As Northampton’s high hazard dams age, precipitation and impoundment volumes
increase with climate change, and if maintenance is deferred, the likelihood of a dam failure will
increase.
Mass DEP has evaluated the overall condition of 15 of the dams in Northampton. Of those evaluated,
four were deemed “Satisfactory,” eight were deemed “Fair,” and two were deemed “Poor.” An
explanation for each of these ratings is provided below.
SATISFACTORY - Minor operational and maintenance deficiencies. Infrequent hydrologic events
would probably result in deficiencies.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 39
FAIR - Significant operational and maintenance deficiencies, no structural deficiencies. Potential
deficiencies exist under unusual loading conditions that may realistically occur. Can be used
when uncertainties exist as to critical parameters.
POOR - Significant structural, operational, and maintenance deficiencies are clearly recognized
under normal loading conditions.
Northampton’s levee systems along the Mill River and Connecticut River were very well constructed in
1940 and are regularly maintained, though a sufficiently large flood could cause structural damage to
the levee and cause it to partially breach. Given current conditions, the primary risk is where the levees
meet the original grade that water, with enough hydrostatic pressure, could slip below the levees. Core
samples of the levees were drilled in 2020 and are currently being analyzed to ensure the integrity of
the levees.
However, due to rarity of major floods during the last few decades, the frequency of levee breach or
failure remains “very low,” with a less than 1 percent chance in any given year.
Impact
The City faces a “critical” impact from failure of dams or levees with a high hazard level, with 25 percent
of Northampton affected.
Complete failure of a high significant hazard dam in Northampton is estimated to impact between 0 and
25 percent of the City, and resulting in property losses up to $685,514,166. Other dams are not
expected to have a risk to property and people. Costs are based on the total value of all structures in
Northampton of $2,742,056,662.
While the state does not evaluate the hazard level of levees, the Hazard Mitigation Committee assessed
both the Mill River levee system and Connecticut River levee system and determined the percent of City
affected by their failure to be 5 percent and 25 percent respectively.
Vulnerability
Based on this analysis, Northampton has a hazard index rating of “5 – very low risk” from dam failure or
levee breach.
Population
The most vulnerable populations exposed to the Dam Failure / Levee Breach hazard include people in
frontline communities, those with low socioeconomic status, over the age of 65, young children, people
with medical needs, and those with low English language fluency. Populations that live or work in
proximity to facilities that use or store toxic substances within the affected area of a dam failure or levee
breach are at greater risk of exposure to these substances. Populations identified by the 2010 Census as
minority, low income, and English isolated that are living in an area protected by a levee are particularly
vulnerable.
40 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Advance weather forecasting, blockades, and emergency alerts and warnings help to minimize the total
number of injuries and casualties that typically result from dam failure or levee breach. While dam
failure can lead to flash flood conditions that are harder to mitigate with early warning messages, even a
relatively low-level flood can be hazardous and can result in direct mortality to individuals interacting
with the flood zone. See the Vulnerability discussion under the Flood profile above for additional
information.
Built Environment and Economy
Flooding from dam failure or levee breach can cause direct damage to critical facilities and result in
roadblocks and inaccessible streets that impact the ability of public safety and emergency vehicles to
respond to calls for service.
There are a number of critical facilities in the levee-protected zone. For instance, the wastewater
treatment facility is in the levee-protected zone – if any part of the flood control system, such as the
levee of pump stations, were to fail, this would be one of the first facilities to flood. This and other
critical facilities in the levee-protected area should take precautions to ensure a flood event would not
result in facility damage or environmental contamination.
A catastrophic failure of Northampton’s flood control system would impact many of the downtown
businesses. FEMA research has shown that nearly 1 in 4, or 25%, of businesses do not return after a
major catastrophic event. This would have a major impact on City tax income and operating budget. A
significant loss of homes due to the same levee failure or a dam failure could also have major tax
implications that could strain City cash flow for years after the event.
Natural Resources
Dam failures and levee breaches result in severe and flash flood conditions leading to substantial
damage to the environment and natural resources, particularly in areas where human development has
interfered with natural flood-related processes. The Francis P. Ryan Reservoir Dam and the adjascent
West Whately Reservoir Dam retain one of the City’s primary sources of drinking water and are rated in
“Fair” condition according the Office of Dam Safety (ODS) regulations. Improvements to the spillways
and embankments are required to address current deficiencies and to provide sufficient capacity to pass
the one half the Probable Maximum Flood (1/2 PMF) without overtopping the dams.
Drought
Hazard Description
Like flooding, drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. It occurs almost everywhere, although
its features vary from region to region. In the most general sense, drought originates from a deficiency
of precipitation over an extended period of time, resulting in a water shortage for some activity, group,
or environmental sector. Reduced crop, rangeland, and forest productivity; increased fire hazard;
reduced water levels; increased livestock and wildlife mortality rates; and damage to wildlife and fish
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 41
habitat are a few examples of the direct impacts of drought. Of course, these impacts can have far-
reaching effects throughout the region and even the country.
Location
Because of this hazard’s regional nature, a drought would impact the entire city, meaning the location of
occurrence is “large” or over 50 percent of the City affected. How a drought is experienced can depend
on geographic factors such as land use change, the existence of dams, and water supply withdrawals or
diversions. For example, impervious surfaces associated with development can exacerbate the effects of
drought due to decreased groundwater recharge.
Extent
The severity of a drought would determine the scale of the event and would vary among city residents
depending on whether the residents’ water supply is derived from a private well or the public water
system.
The U.S. Drought Monitor also records information on historical drought occurrence. Unfortunately,
data could only be found at the state level. The U.S. Drought Monitor categorizes drought on a D0-D4
scale as shown below.
Source: US Drought Monitor, http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/classify.htm
When evaluating drought risk utilizing the Palmer Drought Severity Index, Massachusetts is historically
in the lowest percentile for severity and risk of drought. Even so, there have been several years of
U.S. Drought Monitor
Classification Category Description
D0 Abnormally Dry
Going into drought: short-term dryness slowing planting, growth
of crops or pastures. Coming out of drought: some lingering
water deficits; pastures or crops not fully recovered
D1 Moderate Drought
Some damage to crops, pastures; streams, reservoirs, or wells
low, some water shortages developing or imminent; voluntary
water-use restrictions requested
D2 Severe Drought Crop or pasture losses likely; water shortages common; water
restrictions imposed
D3 Extreme Drought Major crop/pasture losses; widespread water shortages or
restrictions
D4 Exceptional Drought
Exceptional and widespread crop/pasture losses; shortages of
water in reservoirs, streams, and wells creating water
emergencies
42 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
drought-like conditions in Western Massachusetts: 1940-1952, 1980-1983, 1995-2001, 2010 and 2016.
Furthermore, global warming and climate change may have an effect on drought risk in the region. With
the projected temperature increases, some scientists think that the global hydrological cycle will also
intensify. This would increase the severity and duration of droughts that might impact Northampton.
The extent of a severe drought in Northampton would be minor, with very few injuries, if any, only
minor property damage and minimal disruption on quality of life, and a temporary shutdown of facilities
or limits placed on water usage.
Previous Occurrences
In Massachusetts, six major droughts have occurred statewide since 1930, the most severe in 1960 and
the most recent in 2016. 5 They range in severity and length, from three to eight years. Although it was
shorted in duration, the severity of the 2016 drought state-wide was equivalent to that of the historic
drought of the 1960s. In many of these droughts, water-supply systems were found to be inadequate.
Water was piped in to urban areas, and water-supply systems were modified to permit withdrawals at
lower water levels. The following table indicates previous occurrences of drought since 2000, based on
the US Drought Monitor. Note, the table below only reports on the highest recorded drought level for
each year:
Annual Drought Status
Year Maximum Severity
2000 No drought
2001 D2 conditions in 21% and D1 conditions in 79% of the state
2002 D2 conditions in 99% of the state
2003 No drought
2004 D0 conditions in 44% of the state
2005 D1 conditions in 7% and D0 conditions in 100% of the state
2006 D0 conditions in 98% of the state
2007 D1 conditions in 71% and D0 conditions in 100% of the state
2008 D0 conditions in 57% of the state
2009 D0 conditions in 44% of the state
2010 D1 conditions in 27% and D0 conditions in 100% of the state
5 US Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375. “National Water Summary 1989 – Floods and
Droughts: Massachusetts.” Prepared by S. William Wandle, Jr., US Geological Survey.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 43
Annual Drought Status
Year Maximum Severity
2011 D0 conditions in 0.01% of the state
2012 D2 conditions in 51% and D1 conditions in 96% of the state
2016 D3 conditions in 52% of the state, D2 in 38%, and D1 in 8% of the state
2017 D3 conditions in 9% of the state, D2 in 60%, and D1 in 28% of the state
2018 D1 in 36% of the state and D0 conditions in 49% of the state
2019 D0 conditions in 85% of the state
Through May 2020 D0 conditions in 26% of the state
Source: US Drought Monitor
Northampton has had limited experience with severe drought conditions. According to the
Massachusetts SHMCAP, between 2001 and 2017 the City experienced up to 69 weeks of Severe
Drought and 21 weeks of Extreme Drought, as many weeks as any other municipality in the State as
classified by the U.S. Drought Monitor.
In the summer of 2016, Northampton experienced drought conditions that were impacting most of the
Commonwealth. The lack of adequate rainfall coupled with warm summer temperatures over a span of
months prompted authorities to implement water-use restrictions for residents and businesses alike.
The City’s Water Department actively managed the two water supply reservoirs and activated their two
groundwater wells to supplement supply from the reservoirs. Restrictions were placed on the allowable
time and location for outdoor watering, including the use of hoses and sprinklers. The partial water ban
was in accordance with the state's Water Management Act and Northampton’s Public Water Supply
Water Management Act permit with MassDEP. Similar bans were enacted and enforced in the summers
of 2015, 2017, 2018, and 2019.
Probability of Future Events
The frequency and intensity of droughts are projected to increase during summer and fall as higher
temperatures lead to greater evaporation and earlier winter and spring snowmelt, and precipitation
patterns become more variable and extreme. Also due to climate change, the proportion of
precipitation falling as rain instead of snow in our region and the length of time snowpack remains are
both expected to decrease. This reduces the period during which snow melt can recharge groundwater
supplies, bolster streamflow, and provide water for the growing period.
In Northampton, as in the rest of the state, drought occurs at a “low” probability (1 to 10 percent in the
next year). Based on past events and current criteria outlined in the Massachusetts Drought
Management Plan, it appears that western Massachusetts may be more vulnerable than eastern
Massachusetts to severe drought conditions. However, many factors, such as water supply sources,
44 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
population, economic factors (i.e., agriculture based economy), and infrastructure, may affect the
severity and length of a drought event. When evaluating the region’s risk for drought on a national level,
utilizing the Palmer Drought Severity Index, Massachusetts is historically in the lowest percentile for
severity and risk of drought.6
Due to the water richness of western Massachusetts, Northampton is unlikely to be adversely affected
by anything other than a major, extended drought. While such a drought would require water saving
measures to be implemented, there would be no foreseeable damage to structures or loss of life
resulting from the hazard.
Average temperatures in the Pioneer Valley have been increasing over time in the Pioneer Valley due to
climate change, and this trend is likely to continue in the future. Higher temperatures due to climate
change will likely have an effect on future drought risk in Northampton. A slight decrease in summer
precipitation will also support more frequent droughts, especially short-term (1 to 3 months). Droughts
are likely to increase in their frequency in the Northeast to the level of once per year.
Impact
The impact of droughts as categorized by the U.S. Drought Monitor include:
• Slowing or loss of crops and pastures
• Water shortages or restrictions
6 National Drought Mitigation Center – http://drought.unl.edu
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 45
• Minor to significant damage to crops, pastures;
• Low water levels in streams, reservoirs, or wells
However, the City’s local aquifer supply would help to reduce the effects of widespread drought on the
local water supply. The impact of a drought is thus “minor,” with very few damages to people or
property likely to occur.
Secondary Hazards
Another hazard commonly associated with drought is wildfire. A prolonged lack of precipitation dries
out soil and vegetation, which becomes increasingly susceptible to ignition as the duration of the
drought extends. As a result, a drought may increase the probability of a wildfire occurring. Additional
information is provided on the wildfire hazard later in this section.
In Northampton, the inability to provide sufficient water supply can itself be secondary to other natural
or man-made hazard events. Power outage, tornado, building fires, construction/maintenance projects,
aging infrastructure, and inadequate water main sizes are the significant causes of water loss to the
Town.
Vulnerability
Based on the above assessment, Northampton has a hazard index rating of “5 – very low risk” from
drought. No loss of property, or damages to people or property, is expected due to this hazard.
Populations
The entire population of Northampton would be vulnerable to the impacts of a drought. Residents with
a private water supply such as a well, homeless residents, and populations with respiratory health
conditions are most vulnerable.
Built Environment
Some infrastructure may not be built to operate in drought conditions. Intake pipes may be too high
above drought water levels, and wells may be too shallow. Private suppliers or residents with private
systems may need to drill deeper wells or find alternative supplies for emergency back-up during severe
droughts.
Natural Resources
Prolonged droughts can have severe impacts on groundwater and surface water-dependent ecosystems
and natural resources, as most organisms require water throughout their life cycle.
46 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Economy
Economic impacts of drought can be significant in the agriculture, recreation, forestry, and energy
sectors. Coca-Cola, a major employer and economic driver in Northampton, relies on local water sources
for its productivity. A prolonged drought may lead to reduced production capability or temporary
closure. Farmers in the Meadows area of Northampton work with particularly fertile and wet soil
conditions, and therefore are not equipped with irrigation systems that would be required to maintain
crop viability in the case of a severe drought.
Impacts on the individual level include the need to buy water from an alternative source during a
drought emergency. Crop failure can also increase food prices, straining a portion of the economy.
Extreme Temperatures
Hazard Description
What constitutes “extreme cold” or “extreme heat” can vary across different geographies, based on
what the population of a particular place is accustomed to. According to the Massachusetts State Hazard
Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Plan, extreme heat for Massachusetts is usually defined as a period
of 3 or more consecutive days above 90 degrees Fahrenheit (°F), but more generally as a prolonged
period of excessively hot weather, which may be accompanied by high humidity. Extreme cold is also
considered relative to the normal climatic lows in a region.
More broadly, extreme temperatures can be defined as those that are far outside the normal ranges.
The average highs and lows of the hottest and coolest months in the nearby town of Amherst, the
closest site for which data was available, are provided in Table 8 below.
Source: NOAA NWS, 2020. Monthly Climate Normals (1981 – 2010) Amherst, MA
The highest temperature recorded at the Amherst station for the period from 1893 to present7 was
104°F on July 4, 1911 (NOAA NOW Data, Boston / Norton Weather Forecast Office,
https://w2.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=box).
Projected temperature extremes will shift with climate change, according to research conducted by the
Massachusetts Executive office for Energy and Environmental Affairs and the University of
7https://w2.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=box;
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/extremes/scec/records
Table 8. Monthly Temperature Normals
July (Hottest Month) January (Coldest Month)
Average High (°F) 82.2 33.1
Average Low (°F) 59.2 23.1
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 47
Massachusetts, Amherst. By 2050, summer maximum temperatures (including the presumed hottest
month of July) are expected to reach as high as 87.7°F in the Connecticut River Basin, as opposed to a
1971-2000 baseline of 80.2°F (resilientma.org).
Extreme cold events are when temperatures drop well below normal in an area. Generally, extreme cold
temperatures are characterized by the ambient air temperature dropping to or below 0 degrees
Fahrenheit (ºF) (National Weather Service [NWS] 2015). When winter temperatures drop significantly
below normal, staying warm and safe can become a challenge. Extremely cold temperatures may
accompany or follow a winter storm, which may also cause power failures and icy roads. Many homes
will be too cold, either due to a power failure or because the heating system is not adequate for the
weather. Extensive exposure to extreme cold temperatures can cause frostbite or hypothermia and can
become life-threatening.
Extreme heat is defined by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) as temperatures which hover 10
degrees or more above the average high temperature for a region and that last for several weeks (CDC
2016). Heat waves cause more fatalities in the U.S. than the total of all other meteorological events
combined. Since 1979, more than 9,000 Americans have died from heat-related ailments (EPA, 2016). In
Massachusetts, a heat wave is defined as 3 or more days of temperatures of 90°F or above and is often
accompanied by high humidity. The designation implies an extended period of unusually high
atmosphere-related heat stress, which forces affected populations to make temporary modifications in
lifestyle to avoid adverse health consequences (MA HMCAP, 2018).
Location
NOAA divides Massachusetts up into three climate divisions - Western, Central, and Coastal – and
average annual temperatures vary slightly over the divisions. Another distinction between the divisions
is that extreme temperature events occur more frequently and vary more in the inland regions where
temperatures are not moderated by the Atlantic Ocean. Northampton sits along the western edge of the
Central Division, with annual average temperatures of around 49°F.
48 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Figure 1. Climate Divisions of Massachusetts
Source: NOAA, n.d.
Extreme temperatures would affect the whole community in Northampton, resulting in a “large”
location of occurrence, or more than 50 percent of total land area affected.
Extent
The extent (severity or magnitude) of extreme cold temperatures are generally measured through the
Wind Chill Temperature (WCT) Index. Wind Chill Temperature is the temperature that people and
animals feel when outside and it is based on the rate of heat loss from exposed skin by the effects of
wind and cold. The chart shows three shaded areas of frostbite danger. Each shaded area shows how
long a person can be exposed before frostbite develops. In Massachusetts, a wind chill warning is issued
by the NWS Taunton Forecast Office when the Wind Chill Temperature Index, based on sustained wind,
is –25ºF or lower for at least three hours. The WCT is presented in Figure 2.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 49
Figure 2. NWS Wind Chill Index
Source: NWS 2018
The NWS Heat Index is used to measure extremely hot temperatures, combining relative humidity with
actual air temperature to determine the risk to humans. The NWS issues a Heat Advisory when the Heat
Index is forecast to reach 100-104°F for 2 or more hours, and an Excessive Heat Warning if the Heat
Index is forecast to reach 105°F or higher for 2 or more hours. The chart in Figure 3 indicates the
relationship between heat index and relative humidity and illustrates the adverse effects that prolonged
exposure to heat and humidity can have on an individual.
50 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Figure 3. NWS Heat Index Chart
Source: National Weather Service (NWS), Heat Index, 2018
According to recent downscaled climate projections for Massachusetts, high, low, and average
temperatures in Hampshire County are likely to increase significantly over the next century as a result of
climate change (resilient MA, 2019). This gradual change will put long-term stress on a variety of social
and natural systems, and will exacerbate the influence of discrete events. In the event of an extreme
cold or heat event, multiple injuries and health impacts would be possible. Therefore, the extent of this
hazard is critical.
Previous Occurrences
The following are the lowest temperatures recorded in parts of Massachusetts for the period from 1895
to present according to NOAA’s State Climate Extremes Committee (SCEC):
• Taunton: -35°F, January 5, 1904
• Coldbrook: -35°F, February 15, 1943
• Chester: -35°F, January 12, 1981
Since 1994, there have been 33 cold weather events within the Commonwealth, ranging from
Cold/Wind Chill to Extreme Cold/Wind Chill events. In February 2015, a series of snowstorms piled up to
60 inches in some areas in 3 weeks and caused recurrent blizzards across eastern Massachusetts.
Temperature gauges across the Commonwealth measured extreme cold, with wind chills as low as 31°F.
Four indirect fatalities occurred as a result of this event: two adults died shoveling snow and two adults
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 51
were hit by snowplows. In February 2016, one cold weather event broke records throughout the state.
Extreme cold/wind chill events were declared in 16 climate zones across the Commonwealth
(MASHMCAP, 2018).
According to the NOAA’s Storm Events Database, there were 43 heat events (ranging from Record
Warmth/Heat to Excessive Heat events) in Massachusetts between 1995 and 2018, the most recent of
which occurred in July 2013. Whenever the heat index values meet or exceed locally or regionally
established heat or excessive heat warning thresholds, an event is reported in the database. In 2012,
Massachusetts temperatures broke 27 heat records. Most of these records were broken between June
20 and June 22, 2012, during the first major heat wave of the summer to hit Massachusetts and the East
Coast. In July 2013, a long period of hot and humid weather occurred throughout New England. One
fatality occurred on July 6, when a postal worker collapsed as the Heat Index reached 100°F
(MASHMCAP, 2018). None of these events was known to impact individuals in Northampton.
The lowest temperature recorded at the Barnes Municipal Airport in Westfield for the period from 1893
to present was -30°F on January 22, 1961 (NOAA NOW Data, Boston / Norton Weather Forecast Office,
https://w2.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=box).
Between 1954 and 2019, Hampshire County was not included in any FEMA declared extreme
temperature-related disasters (DR) or emergencies (EM).
Probability of Future Events
The NE CASC data support the trends of an increased frequency of extreme hot weather events and a
decreased frequency of extreme cold weather events. Figure 4 and
Figure 5 show the projected changes in these variables between 2020 and the end of this century.
52 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Figure 4. Projected Annual Days with Temperature Above 90°F
Source: resilient MA, 2019
Figure 5. Projected Annual Days with Temperature below 32°F
Source: resilient MA, 2019
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 53
The probability of future extreme heat and extreme cold is considered to be "high," or between 40 and
70 percent in any given year.
Secondary Hazard
According to the 2018 SHMCAMP, the most significant secondary hazard associated with extreme
temperatures is a severe weather event. Severe heat events are often associated with drought, as
evaporation increases with temperature, and with wildfire, as high temperatures can cause vegetation
to dry out and become more flammable. Warmer weather will also have an impact on invasive species
(see Invasive Species section below for additional detail). More commonly, heat events contribute to
poor air quality that can exacerbate asthma and result in an increase in emergency department visits.
Conversely, extreme cold events are primarily associated with severe winter storms. The combination of
cold weather with severe winter storm events is especially dangerous because winter weather can
knock out heat and power, increasing exposure to extreme cold temperatures. Loss of heat and power
may also lead to carbon monoxide poisoning from inappropriate use of combustion-powered
generators, heaters, and cooking appliances, and heavy snowfall may block vents for gas dryers and
heaters. Similarly, prolonged exposure to extreme heat can compromise power infrastructure, leaving
customers without power or the ability to operate air conditioning. Power failure leads to increased use
of diesel generators for power and more wood stoves are used in extreme cold; both situations lead to
increasing air pollution and health impacts.
Impact
In the event of an extreme cold or heat event, multiple injuries and health impacts would be possible. As
shown in Figure 3 above, the NWS Heat Index chart describes the impacts of extreme high temperatures
when coupled with higher humidity levels (which are characteristic of the Pioneer Valley region) as
follows:
• Extreme Danger: Heat stroke likely.
• Danger: Sunstroke, muscle cramps, and/or heat exhaustion likely. Heatstroke possible with
prolonged exposure and/or physical activity.
• Caution: Fatigue possible with prolonged exposure and/or physical activity.
• Since heat index values were devised for shady, light wind conditions, exposure to full
sunshine can increase heat index values by up to 15°F.
According to recent downscaled climate projections for Massachusetts, high, low, and average
temperatures in Hampshire County are likely to increase significantly over the next century as a result of
climate change (resilient MA, 2019), as are the occurrences of days over 90°F, 95°F, and 100°F. This
pattern change will put long-term stress on a variety of social and natural systems, and will exacerbate
the influence of discrete events. Multiple instance of heat stress could occur during any given extreme
heat event, and therefore, the City faces a “Limited” impact from extreme temperatures.
54 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Vulnerability
Extreme temperature can have a significant impact to human health, commercial/agricultural business
Population
Extensive exposure to extreme cold temperatures can cause frostbite or hypothermia and can become
life-threatening. Extreme cold and extreme heat are dangerous situations that can result in health
emergencies for individuals without shelter or some other way to stay cool, or who live in homes that
are poorly insulated, or without adequate heat or air conditioning. Power outages may also result in
inappropriate use of combustion heaters and other appliances, as discussed under Secondary Impacts
above.
Extreme heat events can also contribute to a worsening of air quality, as high temperatures increase the
production of ozone from aerosols such as volatile organic compounds. Weather patterns that bring
high temperatures can also transport air pollutants from other areas of the continent. Additionally,
atmospheric inversions and low wind speeds associated with heat waves allow polluted air to remain in
one location for a prolonged period of time (UCI, 2017).
According to the 2018 SHMCAP, the interaction of heat and cardiovascular disease caused
approximately 25 percent of the heat related deaths since 1999. Other vulnerability indicators relative
to extreme heat are presented in Table 9.
Table 9. General Vulnerability Indicators
Location Estimated Increase in
Average
Temperature by 2100
(°F)
Proportion of
Population Aged
65 or Older
Proportion of
Population Aged
Younger than 5
Years
Proportion of the
Population Living
Below Poverty
Level
Hampshire
County
+5.23 to +9.63° 17.2% 3.4% 11.1%
Northampton N/A 16.6% (1) 3.6% (1) 16.1% (1)
Notes: U.S. Census Bureau Quick Facts, Hampshire County, MA. 2019.
(1) 2019 American Community Survey states that estimates are not comparable to other geographic levels due to methodology differences that
may exist between different data sources.
Built Environment
With the exception of power infrastructure, most structures and infrastructure within the City are not at
risk for damage due to extreme temperatures, but populations that are not prepared to contend with
these temperature extremes could be most vulnerable. However, extreme cold temperature events can
damage buildings through freezing or bursting pipes and freeze and thaw cycles. Furthermore,
secondary impacts of this hazard include extreme temperature fluctuations, which have serious
implications for transportation infrastructure life-span and maintenance needs.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 55
Natural Resources
Individual extreme temperature events usually have a limited long-term impact on natural systems,
although unusual frost events occurring after plants begin to bloom in the spring can cause significant
damage. However, changing average temperatures and the changing frequency of extreme climate
events will likely have a major impact on natural resources throughout the Commonwealth and
worldwide (2018 SHMCAP).
Changing temperatures will impact the natural environment in many ways. Because the species that
exist in a given area have adapted to survive within a specific temperature range, extreme temperature
events can place significant stress both on individual species and the ecosystems in which they function.
Massachusetts ecosystems that are expected to be particularly vulnerable to warming temperatures
include:
• Coldwater streams and fisheries
• Vernal pools
• Spruce-fir forests
• Northern hardwood (Maple-Beech-Birch) forests, which are economically important due to
their role in sugar production
• Hemlock forests, particularly those with the hemlock woolly adelgid
• Urban forests, which will experience extra impacts due to the urban heat island effect (2018
SHMCAP)
Additional impacts of warming temperatures include the increased survival and grazing damage of
white-tailed deer, increased invasion rates of invasive plants, and increased survival and productivity of
insect pests, which cause damage to forests.
Economy
Extreme temperatures can impact a municipal and regional economy in various ways. Northampton
business owners may be faced with increased financial burdens due to unexpected building repairs (e.g.,
repairs for burst pipes), higher than normal utility bills, or business interruptions due to power failure
(i.e., loss of electricity and telecommunications). There is a loss of productivity and income when the
transportation sector is impacted and people and commodities cannot get to their intended destination.
Employers with outdoor workers (such as agricultural and construction companies) may have to reduce
employees’ exposure to the elements by reducing or shifting their hours to cooler or warmer periods of
the day – these shifts can impact the earnings of both the company and the individual employee.
The agricultural industry is most directly at risk in terms of economic impact and damage due to
extreme temperature and drought events. Extreme heat can result in drought and dry conditions, which
directly impact livestock and crop production (2018 SHMCAP) and also have adverse impacts on outdoor
entertainment and dining, an important part of Northampton’s downtown economy.
56 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Wildfires / Brushfires
Hazard Description
Wildfires are typically larger fires, involving full-sized trees as well as meadows and scrublands.
Brushfires are uncontrolled fires that occur in meadows and scrublands, but do not involve full-sized
trees. Typical causes of brushfires and wildfires are lightning strikes, human carelessness, and arson.
FEMA has classifications for 3 different classes of wildfires:
• Surface fires are the most common type of wildfire, with the surface burning slowly along
the floor of a forest, killing or damaging trees.
• Ground fires burn on or below the forest floor and are usually started by lightening.
• Crown fires move quickly by jumping along the tops of trees. A crown fire may spread
rapidly, especially under windy conditions.
Location
While Northampton is a city with a dense, well-defined downtown, it still contains several thousand
acres of largely undeveloped space. The rural-urban interface is most pronounced in those sections of
city that are experiencing development, most notably Florence and Leeds. The total amount of city that
could be affected by wildfire is categorized as “medium,” at between 10 to 50 percent of the total area.
Extent
Wildfires can cause widespread damage to the areas that they affect. They can spread very rapidly,
depending on local wind speeds and be very difficult to get under control. Fires can last for several hours
up to several days.
Approximately 1,150 acres of land in Northampton is forested according to MassGIS 2016 Land
Cover/Land Use8 data and is therefore at risk of fire. Forested areas in Northampton cover many of the
city’s outlying areas, which can be remote and difficult for emergency crews to access. In drought
conditions, a brushfire or wildfire would be a matter of concern. A large wildfire could damage much of
the land mass, including vital watershed lands, in a short period of time.
As described in the next section describing previous occurrences of wildfire, there have not been any
major wildfires recorded in Northampton. However, based on other major wildfires that have occurred
in western Massachusetts, it is estimated that such a fire would likely destroy around 50 to 500 acres of
forested area.
The overall extent of wildfires is shown in the table below:
8 MassGIS Data: 2016 Land Cover/Land Use, 2020
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 57
Extent of Wildfires
Rating Basic Description Detailed Description
CLASS 1: Low
Danger (L)
Color Code:
Green
Fires not easily
started
Fuels do not ignite readily from small firebrands. Fires in open or
cured grassland may burn freely a few hours after rain, but wood
fires spread slowly by creeping or smoldering and burn in
irregular fingers. There is little danger of spotting.
CLASS 2:
Moderate
Danger (M)
Color Code:
Blue
Fires start easily and
spread at a
moderate rate
Fires can start from most accidental causes. Fires in open cured
grassland will burn briskly and spread rapidly on windy days.
Woods fires spread slowly to moderately fast. The average fire is
of moderate intensity, although heavy concentrations of fuel –
especially draped fuel -- may burn hot. Short-distance spotting
may occur, but is not persistent. Fires are not likely to become
serious and control is relatively easy.
CLASS 3:
High Danger
(H)
Color Code:
Yellow
Fires start easily and
spread at a rapid
rate
All fine dead fuels ignite readily and fires start easily from most
causes. Unattended brush and campfires are likely to escape.
Fires spread rapidly and short-distance spotting is common. High
intensity burning may develop on slopes or in concentrations of
fine fuel. Fires may become serious and their control difficult,
unless they are hit hard and fast while small.
CLASS 4:
Very High
Danger (VH)
Color Code:
Orange
Fires start very
easily and spread at
a very fast rate
Fires start easily from all causes and immediately after ignition,
spread rapidly and increase quickly in intensity. Spot fires are a
constant danger. Fires burning in light fuels may quickly develop
high-intensity characteristics - such as long-distance spotting -
and fire whirlwinds, when they burn into heavier fuels. Direct
attack at the head of such fires is rarely possible after they have
been burning more than a few minutes.
CLASS 5:
Extreme (E)
Color Code:
Red
Fire situation is
explosive and can
result in extensive
property damage
Fires under extreme conditions start quickly, spread furiously and
burn intensely. All fires are potentially serious. Development into
high-intensity burning will usually be faster and occur from
smaller fires than in the Very High Danger class (4). Direct attack
is rarely possible and may be dangerous, except immediately
after ignition. Fires that develop headway in heavy slash or in
conifer stands may be unmanageable while the extreme burning
condition lasts. Under these conditions, the only effective and
safe control action is on the flanks, until the weather changes or
the fuel supply lessens.
58 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Previous Occurrences
The wildfire season in Massachusetts usually begins in late March and typically culminates in early June,
corresponding with the driest live fuel moisture periods of the year. April is historically the month in
which wildfire danger is the highest. Drought, snowpack level, and local weather conditions can impact
the length of the fire season.
Few wildfires have been recorded in the past 100 years in the Pioneer Valley, and none has ever resulted
in a FEMA disaster declaration. During the past 100 years, there have not been many wildfires occurring
in the Pioneer Valley. However, several have occurred during the past 20 years, as shown in the list
below:
• 1995 – Russell, 500 acres burned on Mt. Tekoa
• 2000 – South Hadley, 310 acres burned over 14 days in the Litihia Springs Watershed
• 2001 – Ware, 400 acres burned
• 2010 – Russell, 320 acres burned on Mt. Tekoa
• 2012 – Eastern Hampden County, dry conditions and wind gusts created a brush fire in
Brimfield, and burned 50 acres
• 2016 - Montgomery, 60 acres burned on Mt. Tekoa (MA HMP, 2013)
As a point of reference, the total number of any type of fire incidence in Northampton for the years
2013-2017 is provided below. The “Total # of Incidents” includes structural and vehicle fires, while
incidents classified as “other” could include, but do not necessarily include, brush fires. The
Northampton Fire Department responds to house fires and the few “wildfires” that occur.
Table 10. Total Fire Incidents in Northampton
Year Total # of Incidents “Other Fires”
2013 81 36
2014 67 36
2015 67 36
2016 73 28
2017 57 18
Source: Massachusetts Fire Incidence Reporting System, County Profiles, 2017 Fire Data Analysis and Annual Fact Sheets,
https://www.mass.gov/service-details/fire-data-and-statistics
There are no other records, authenticated or anecdotal, of wildfires in Northampton.
Probability of Future Events
In accordance with the Massachusetts Hazard Mitigation Plan, the Northampton Hazard Mitigation
Committee found it is difficult to predict the likelihood of wildfires in a probabilistic manner because of
the number of variables involved. Research has found that the frequency of lightning strikes – an
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 59
occasional cause of wildfire – could increase by approximately 12 percent for every degree Celsius of
warming (2018 SHMCAP). However, even with the increased lightning risks, based on previous
occurrences, the Committee determined the probability of future events to be “low” (1 percent to 10
percent probability in the next year).
Climate scenarios project summer temperature increases between 3.2ºF and 7.3ºF and fall precipitation
decreases of up to 11 percent by 2050 in Northampton. Such conditions would exacerbate summer
drought and further promote high-elevation wildfires, releasing stores of carbon and further
contributing to the buildup of greenhouse gases. Forest response to increased atmospheric carbon
dioxide—the so-called “fertilization effect”—could also contribute to more tree growth and thus more
fuel for fires, but the effects of carbon dioxide on mature forests are still largely unknown.
Climate change is also predicted to bring increased wind damage from major storms, as well as new
types of pests to the region. Both increased wind and the introduction of new pests could potentially
create more debris in wooded areas and result in a larger risk of fires.
Impact
While a large wildfire could damage much of the landmass of Northampton, these areas are not
populated by people, meaning that wildfire affected areas are not likely to cause damage to property.
For this reason, the City faces a “minor” impact from wildfires, with very few damages likely to occur.
Both wildfires and brushfires can consume homes, other buildings and/or agricultural resources. The
impact of wildfires and brushfires are as follows:
• Impact to benefits that people receive from the environment, such as food/water and the
regulation of floods and drought
• Impact on local heritage, through the destruction of natural features
• Impact to the economy, due to damage to property and income from land following a
wildfire
• Impact through the destruction of people and property
Vulnerability
Based on the above assessment, Northampton has a hazard risk index of “4 – low risk” from wildfires.
Using a total value of all structures in Northampton of $2,742,056,662 and an estimated 50 percent of
damage to 1 percent of all structures, the estimated amount of damage from a forest fire is
$13,710,283. The cost of repairing or replacing the roads, bridges, utilities, and contents of structures is
not included in this estimate.
60 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Population
Human health and the lives of residents and responders are at risk from wildfire. The most vulnerable
populations include emergency responders and those within a short distance of the interface between
the built environment and the wildland environment.
Built Environment
For the purposes of this planning effort, all elements of the built environment located near forested
areas are considered exposed to the wildfire hazard.
Critical facilities are particularly important for routine town operation and emergency response in case
of a severe wildfire. Energy distribution lines are subject to wildfire risk because most poles are made of
wood and susceptible to burning. Transmission lines are also at risk to faulting during wildfires, which
can result in a broad area outage.
Natural Resources
Fire can serve important ecological purposes as a natural part of many ecosystems. Functions include
facilitating the nutrient cycling from dead and decaying matter, removing diseased plants and pests, and
regenerating seeds or stimulating germination of certain plants. This is an important part of the cycle in
the very limited Pine Barrens section of Northampton, which developed with a fire ecology. Conversely,
wildfires can also have significant negative impacts on the environment. Specifically, the ash they
generate can distort the flow of nutrients through an ecosystem, reducing the biodiversity that can be
supported and adding to stream and waterbody sedimentation and eutrophication.
Economy
The initial loss of structures and the subsequent loss of revenue from destroyed businesses from a
wildfire can have major economic impacts on a community. Individuals and families will face economic
challenges if their home is impacted by wildfire. The exposure of homes to this hazard is widespread.
According to the characterization of wildland hazard areas by Radeloff et al., the Massachusetts intermix
hazard area contains 476,934 housing units (or approximately 17 percent of the total housing units in
the Commonwealth). The interface hazard area contains 715,209 housing units (or approximately 26
percent of the total housing units in the Commonwealth).
Invasive Species
Hazard Description
Invasive species are non-native species that threaten and damage local ecosystems, economies, and/or
public health (NISC 2006). The Massachusetts Invasive Plant Advisory Group (MIPAG), a collaborative
representing organizations and professionals concerned with the conservation of the Massachusetts
landscape, is charged by EOEEA to provide recommendations to the Commonwealth to manage invasive
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 61
species. MIPAG defines invasive plants as "non-native species that have spread into native or minimally
managed plant systems in Massachusetts, causing economic or environmental harm by developing self-
sustaining populations and becoming dominant and/or disruptive to those systems" (MIPAG, n.d.).
Invasive terrestrial plants are the most studied and managed typed of invasive, but invasive insects are
also relevant to Northampton. In all cases, these species have biological traits that provide them with
competitive advantages over native species, particularly because in a new habitat they are not restricted
by the biological controls of their native habitat. As a result, these invasive species can monopolize
natural communities, displacing many native species and causing widespread economic and
environmental damage.
The spread of invasive species is primarily caused by human activity. Common examples include:
• Wood Products: Insects can get into wood, shipping palettes, and crates that are shipped
around the world as well as travel in firewood.
• Ornamental Plants: Some ornamental plants can escape into the wild and become invasive.
• Pet Trade: Some invasive species start as pets that are intentionally or accidentally released.
• Climate change: Warmer temperatures place stress on cold-weather species, while allowing
non-native species accustomed to warmer climates to spread northward. As rainfall and
snowfall patterns change, certain habitats and species that have specific physiological
requirements may be affected. The stresses experienced by native ecosystems as a result of
these changes may increase the chances of a successful invasion of non-native species.
Invasive plant species such as Asian honeysuckles, bittersweet, Japanese barberry, Japanese knotweed,
autumn olive, burning bush, multiflora rose, garlic mustard, and glossy buckthorn, are considered by the
Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources, New England Wildflower Society, U.S. Forest
Service, and others as some of the worst invaders in the region.
Non‐native insects which currently threaten the region are the emerald ash borer (EAB), Asian
longhorned beetle (ALB), Red Pine Scale, and hemlock wooly adelgid (HWA).
Emerald ash borer (EAB) is an exotic beetle that was discovered in southeastern Michigan in the summer
of 2002. The larvae feed in the cambium between the bark and wood, producing S-shaped galleries that
girdle and kill branches and trees. As of February 22, 2019, EAB had been confirmed in 51 Massachusetts
cities in towns, including Northampton (MDAR, 2019).
The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis, or ALB) is a major threat to hardwood trees.
The species has decimated tree stock in Worcester County, but has not yet spread to western
Massachusetts.
Red Pine Scale (RPS) is an exotic invasive insect originating from Asia that only attacks Red Pine, one of
North America’s only native pine species of “Eurasian” descent. RPS is a piercing, sucking insect that
overtakes trees in large numbers, with tens of thousands of the tiny insects feeding on the inner bark of
the tree’s crown. Red pine trees succumb quickly, and mortality can be hastened by compounding
62 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
“Hemlock woolly adelgid remains the
single greatest threat to the health
and sustainability of hemlock as a
forest resource in the eastern United
States. This nonnative pest has
impacts comparable to those of the
gypsy moth, Dutch elm disease, and
chestnut blight. It has the potential to
remove a major ecological component
from eastern forest that is important
for maintaining clean water and
supporting wildlife.”
USDA Hemlock Woolly Adelgid
Coordinated Commitment to
Improved Management and
Restoration of Hemlock: 2014-2018
threats such as attacks by bark beetles or periods of drought. The insect spread into MA in the 1990s
and has decimated areas of watershed land in Northampton.
Hemlock woolly adelgid, a small aphid-type insect, was introduced into Massachusetts in 1988 from an
already existing infestation in Connecticut. The insect attacks both the Carolina and Eastern hemlock
and is capable of severely weakening and killing its host plants. It is atypical of most insect species in the
Northeast in that it is inactive for much of the growing season and very active throughout the winter.
Hemlock wooly adelgid is currently present in the region, and has been positively identified on a number
of conservation lands in Northampton.
Location
Invasive species can travel far distances (either via natural mechanisms or accidental human
interference) and therefore can propagate rapidly over a large geographic area, often with no natural
predators. Open freshwater ecosystems generally don’t have physical barriers to prevent establishment
(outside of physiological tolerances) so invasive species can quickly spread once introduced, and find
myriad opportunities for transport to new locations (by boats, for example).
In general, invasive species are most threatening to native or minimally managed ecosystems in
Northampton. This includes many of the rivers and streams throughout the City, conservation lands, as
well as the City’s water supply watershed land serving reservoirs in Williamsburg, Whately and Conway.
The total amount of City land that could be impacted by invasive species is categorized as “medium,”
between 10 percent to 50 percent of the total area.
Extent
Many invasive species have been identified in
Northampton. On just one of the many conservation
properties in Northampton alone, the Barrett Street Marsh,
there were more than a dozen invasive plant species
identified in 2019 including Japanese barberry, glossy
buckthorn, and multi-flora rose, all mentioned above, as
well as Norway maple, black locust, common buckthorn,
Morrow’s honeysuckle, privet, Japanese knotweed, garlic
mustard, moneywort, lesser celandine, yellow iris, purple
loosestrife, Asiatic bittersweet, tansy, sweet cherry, and
Japanese maple.
Invasive insect species are also documented throughout
the City, and those known to be present are also having the
greatest impact on conservation areas and other forested
tracts. Hemlock woolly adelgid has weakened large stands
hemlocks throughout Massachusetts and similarly led to
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 63
declining health of hemlocks trees across the City. The Asian longhorned beetle has the potential to
cause more damage than Dutch elm disease, chestnut blight and gypsy moths combined, destroying
millions of acres of America's treasured hardwoods, including national forests and backyard trees. With
no current cure, early identification and eradication are critical to its control. The Emerald ash borer
causes the most amount of damage to ash trees in its larval stage. Heavily infested trees exhibit canopy
dieback, beginning at the top of the tree. When emerald ash borer populations are high, small trees can
die within 1-2 years of initial infestation, while larger trees may take 3-4 years before succumbing to this
pest.
A full list of “Invasive” terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species are available on the MIPAG website
(last updated April 2016) https://www.massnrc.org/mipag/speciesreviewed_category.htm and in the
2018 SHMCAP, which also includes details on the nature of the ecological and economic challenges
presented by each species as well as information on when and where the species was first detected in
Massachusetts. Despite the presence of these species, their impacts have not been clearly recorded.
Anticipated impacts include increased tree mortality leading to more downed trees and power outages
during storm events.
Other species, while not yet well established in the region, are of particular concern to human health.
These include species like the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus). This invasive mosquito, originally
from southeast and subtropical Asia has moved through the Eastern U.S. and has recently arrived in
Massachusetts. Capable of spreading West Nile Virus, Equine Encephalitis, Zika, and numerous other
tropical diseases, this aggressive mosquito is likely range-limited by cold winter temperatures, suitable
landscape conditions (it prefers urban areas), and variation in moisture. As winter temperatures
increase, the species is likely to become more prevalent in Massachusetts and throughout the
Northeast, increasing the risk of serious illness for residents in summer months.
Based on current understanding of the impact and previous occurrences, the extent of significant
impacts Northampton will likely suffer from invasive species in the short term is Limited.
Probability of Future Events
Changes in temperature and precipitation may increase chances of a successful invasion of non-native
species. To become an invasive species, the species must first be transported to a new region, colonize
and become established, and then spread across the new landscape. Climate change may impact each
stage of this process. Species may shift their ranges north as the climate warms and be successful in
regions they previously had not colonized. Invasives may also be able to spread more rapidly in response
to climate change, given their high dispersal rates and fast generation times. These faster moving
species may be at a competitive advantage if they can move into new areas before their native
competitors.
Here in the Northeast, observed and projected warming conditions are particularly concerning for some
invasives because species ranges in temperate regions are often limited by extreme cold temperatures
or snowfall, both of which we will see less of in coming decades. There is concern that aquatic species,
64 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
such as hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), may be able to survive
and overwinter in Massachusetts with increased temperatures and reduced snowfall. Nutria (Myocastor
coypus), large, non-native, semi-aquatic rodents that are currently established in Maryland and
Delaware, are likely to move north with warming temperatures - perhaps as far as Massachusetts.
Extreme cold winter temperatures are also critical limiting factors for many forest pests, and warming is
expected to increase their survival and lead to expansions and outbreaks. For example, the current
impact of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) in Massachusetts has likely been limited by cold
winter temperatures, as many infested forest stands are surviving while in more southerly ranges there
is near complete mortality from this pest. But the adelgid has already expanded its range with warming
winter temperatures and is likely to have increased survival and higher reproductive rates in the
northern portion of its range as temperatures warm, likely leading to more significant impacts on
forests.
In many cases, efforts to control invasive species growth are met by opposition either from natural
processes or social factors. As an example, Northampton has management plans for its watershed
forests, and these plans guide a number of efforts to regenerate native flora and mitigate the spread of
invasive plant species. However, much of the forest regeneration that does occur is promptly browsed
by deer (and to a lesser extent, moose). Recommended actions for addressing this issue include
exploring ways to control the deer population, or exploring ways to reduce deer access to recently
harvested areas, but these are politically fraught issues.
Given these considerations, and the fact that some invasive species are already present in Northampton,
the frequency of occurrence and annual probability of this hazard is High.
Impact
Invasive species in Northampton will not likely contribute directly to injuries, significant property
damage, or facility shutdown and therefor the impact is deemed “Minor.” However, while the impacts
of invasive species may not be as direct as the impacts of other natural hazards in Northampton, our
changing climate is creating an environment in which invasive species could become more of a
widespread threat. Anticipated impacts of declining tree health include more downed trees and
subsequent power outages (due to weakened or dead trees falling on powerlines) during storm events.
The hemlock woolly Adelgid, for instance, mainly damages varieties of Hemlock trees. Hemlock, like
White Pine, is a foundation tree species, and when any foundation species experiences widespread
illness and/or mortality they leave room for invasive plant species to take over, causing wildlife habitat
and water quality decrease. Deer use healthy hemlock stands for winter shelter, so there could be a
detrimental impact to the deer population, and hunting, caused by the loss of hemlock. Hemlocks
provide shade to waterways, so their loss could mean warmer streams and lower water quality,
potentially impacting aquatic life. The hemlock is not a comparatively very valuable wood product, but it
is used for logging and wood products, so there are economic threats to its loss (Brrokline, 2017)9.
9 Brookline, VT, Hazard Mitigation Plan, 2017.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 65
Another example of the impact is illustrated by Northampton’s experience with large stands of red pine
that died quickly and en mass. The City took on several significant logging contracts to remove dead and
dangerous trees that threatened adjacent roadways and power lines. This clearing results in a prime
opportunity for invasive plants to get established.
The impact of the emerald ash borer could be more significant. Ash logs are more valuable than hemlock
logs, but the bigger concern with the loss of ash is the cascading ecological impacts. There are over 40
arthropod obligate species that are threatened by the loss of ash trees (they depend on ash for their
survival), and ripple effects of the loss of these arthropods and the interrelationships aren’t even fully
known at this point. Ash is a valuable tree for wood products and logging, so the economic impacts on a
regional scale could be severe. More locally, though, the cost to Northampton for removing dead or
dying trees, and the aesthetic and community open space impacts caused by their loss could be
significant.
Many invasive plants in Northampton threaten forest regeneration, and multi-flora rose and Asiatic
bittersweet can destroy mature trees. Smaller invasive plants such as garlic mustard, purple loosestrife,
and goutweed present a threat to native herbaceous plants. Jeffrey Ward, Chief Scientist at the
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, described the health threat posed by Japanese barberry as
a forest infested with Japanese barberry harbors an average of 120 black-legged ticks per acre while a
forest without barberry harbors an average of only 10 black-legged ticks per acre. Black-legged ticks are
known to transmit the causal agents of several diseases, including Lyme disease10.
The impacts of invasive species may interact with those of climate change, magnifying the negative
impacts of both threats. Furthermore, due to the very traits that make them successful at establishing in
new environments, invasives may be favored by climate change. These traits include tolerance to a
broad range of environmental conditions, ability to disperse or travel long distances, ability to compete
efficiently for resources, greater ability to respond to changes in the environment with changes in
physical characteristics, high reproductive rates, and shorter times to maturity.
Vulnerability
Populations
Invasive species can also directly or indirectly cause harm to human health. Some invasive plant species
like giant hogweed and wild parsnip have phytophototoxic properties, meaning direct contact of their
sap with human skin can cause a chemical reaction that makes skin hypersensitive to ultraviolet light.
Another example is that of Japanese barberry, which has been proven to increase the incidence of Lyme
disease by providing sheltered habitat that increases the abundance of small rodents, which act as hosts
to the ticks that carry Lyme disease pathogens (https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/invasive-
species/JapaneseBarberryBCP.pdf).
10 Ibid
66 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
In Northampton, tree mortality resulting from invasive species infestation can lead to blocked roads and
downed powerlines, as well as increased erosion, wildfire risk, and tree clearing expenses.
Natural Environment
Risk to native or minimally managed ecosystems has increased as dispersion of exotic species has
increased. One of the greatest challenges facing Northampton in the management of invasive species is
that many cannot be effectively eradicated (e.g., Japanese knotweed and bittersweet) without the use
of herbicides. This has been the only way to effectively manage intrusion of invasive plant species on the
flood control levies and in other locations throughout the City, creating a secondary hazard to local
ecosystems if not correctly applied and to citizen opposition.
The Nature Conservancy reports that invasive species have contributed directly to the decline of 42% of
the threatened and endangered species in the United States. Further, the annual cost to the U.S.
economy is estimated at $120 billion per year, with more than 100 million acres suffering from invasive
plant infestation. Freshwater ecosystems and estuaries are especially vulnerable to invasion, as these
areas are very difficult to contain and reverse (the Nature Conservancy, https://www.nature.org/en-
us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/ohio/stories-in-ohio/invasive-species-protecting-native-
plants-and-animals/).
Hurricane/ Tropical Storm
Hazard Description
Hurricanes and tropical storms are classified as cyclones and defined as any closed circulation
developing around a low-pressure center in which the winds rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere (or clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere). The primary damaging forces associated with
these storms are high-level sustained winds and heavy precipitation. Tropical cyclones (tropical
depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes) form over the warm, moist waters of the Atlantic Ocean,
Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico, and are classified into one of three categories:
• A tropical depression is declared when there is a low-pressure center in the tropics with
sustained winds of 25 to 33 mph.
• A tropical storm is a named event defined as having sustained winds from 34 to 73 mph.
• If sustained winds reach 74 mph or greater, the storm becomes a hurricane. The Saffir-
Simpson scale ranks hurricanes based on sustained wind speeds—from Category 1 (74 to 95
mph) to Category 5 (156 mph or more). Category 3, 4, and 5 hurricanes are considered
“major” hurricanes. Hurricanes are categorized based on sustained winds; wind gusts
associated with hurricanes may exceed the sustained winds and cause more severe localized
damage (NOAA, n.d.[b]).
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 67
Hurricanes are violent rainstorms with strong winds that can reach speeds of up to 200 miles per hour
and which generate large amounts of precipitation. Hurricanes generally occur between June and
November and can result in flooding and wind damage to structures and above-ground utilities.
Climate change increases the threat of hurricanes and severe wind as oceans and the atmosphere
warms. Warmer water fuels more intense and longer-lasting storms and expands the area in which
hurricanes can form. Warmer air can hold more moisture than cool air, increasing potential rainfall
rates.
Location
Because of the hazard’s regional nature, all of Northampton is at risk from hurricanes, meaning the
location of occurrence is “large.” Ridgetops are more susceptible to wind damage. Areas susceptible to
flooding are also likely to be affected by heavy rainfall.
Extent
As an incipient hurricane develops, barometric pressure (measured in millibars or inches) at its center
falls and winds increase. If the atmospheric and oceanic conditions are favorable, it can intensify into a
tropical depression. When maximum sustained winds reach or exceed 39 miles per hour, the system is
designated a tropical storm, given a name, and is closely monitored by the National Hurricane Center in
Miami, Florida. When sustained winds reach or exceed 74 miles per hour the storm is deemed a
hurricane. Hurricane intensity is further classified by the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, which
rates hurricane wind intensity on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being the most intense. A description of the
damages that could occur due to a hurricane is described by the Saffir-Simpson scale, as shown below.
68 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 11. Hurricane Damage Classifications
Storm
Category Damage Level Description of Damages
Wind
Speed
(MPH)
1
MINIMAL No real damage to building structures. Damage
primarily to unanchored mobile homes, shrubbery,
and trees. Also, some coastal flooding and minor pier
damage. An example of a Category 1 hurricane is
Hurricane Dolly (2008).
74-95 Very dangerous
winds will produce
some damage
2
MODERATE Some roofing material, door, and window damage.
Considerable damage to vegetation, mobile homes,
etc. Flooding damages piers and small craft in
unprotected moorings may break their moorings. An
example of a Category 2 hurricane is Hurricane Francis
in 2004.
96-110 Extremely dangerous
winds will cause
extensive damage
3
EXTENSIVE Some structural damage to small residences and utility
buildings, with a minor amount of curtain wall failures.
Mobile homes are destroyed. Flooding near the coast
destroys smaller structures, with larger structures
damaged by floating debris. Terrain may be flooded
well inland. An example of a Category 3 hurricane is
Hurricane Ivan (2004).
111-129 Devastating damage
will occur
4
EXTREME More extensive curtain wall failures with some
complete roof structure failure on small residences.
Major erosion of beach areas. Terrain may be flooded
well inland. An example of a Category 4 hurricane is
Hurricane Charley (2004).
130-156 Catastrophic damage
will occur
5
CATASTROPHIC
Complete roof failure on many residences and
industrial buildings. Some complete building failures
with small utility buildings blown over or away.
Flooding causes major damage to lower floors of all
structures near the shoreline. Massive evacuation of
residential areas may be required. An example of a
Category 5 hurricane is Hurricane Andrew (1992).
157+
Catastrophic damage
will occur
Source: National Hurricane Center, 2012
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 69
Previous Occurrences
Between 1954 and 2017, Hampshire County was included in 5 FEMA declared severe Hurricane/Tropical
Storm-related disasters (DR) or emergencies (EM) classified as one or a combination of the following
hazards: hurricane and tropical storm. Northampton may not have been impacted by all of these events.
According to NOAA’s Historical Hurricane Tracks tool, there have been 30 hurricanes or tropical storms
in recorded history that tracked within 65 miles of Northampton. They are shown in the following table.
These hurricanes and tropical storms did not cause any significant damage to Northampton.
Table 12. Major Hurricanes and Tropical Storms Affecting Northampton
Hurricane/Storm Name Year Saffir/Simpson Category
(when reached study area)
Unnamed 1861 Tropical Storm
Unnamed 1863 Tropical Storm
Unnamed 1874 Tropical Storm
Unnamed 1888 Tropical Storm
Unnamed 1893 H1
Unnamed 1893 Tropical Storm
Unnamed 1894 H1
Unnamed 1934 Tropical Storm
Great Hurricane of 1938 1938 H3
Able 1952 Tropical Storm
Carol 1954 H3
Brenda 1960 Tropical Storm
Donna 1960 H1
Unnamed 1961 Tropical Storm
Doria 1971 Tropical Storm
Belle 1976 Tropical Storm
Gloria 1985 H1
Bertha 1996 Tropical Storm
Floyd 1999 Tropical Storm
Irene 2011 Tropical Storm
Source: NOAA National Hurricane Center, 2019
70 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
While Superstorm Sandy in late October of 2012 had severe impacts on much of the Northeastern
United States, there was minimal damage that occurred due to the storm locally in Northampton. No
roads were flooded or washed out. While shelters were opened temporarily in town, no residents
encountered long-term displacement due to the storm's impacts. In nearby, more rural areas of western
Massachusetts, there were modest impacts, with localized flooding and downed power lines. Overall,
western Massachusetts was able to send emergency response resources to other states where the
storm had a larger impact. 11
No known hurricane or tropical storm events have impacted Northampton since the last HMP (between
2015 and 2020).
Probability of Future Events
Northampton’s location in western Massachusetts reduces the risk of extremely high winds that are
associated with hurricanes and tropical storms, although it can experience some high wind events.
Based upon past occurrences, it is reasonable to say that there is a “moderate” probability (10 percent
to 40 percent in any given year) of hurricanes or tropical in Northampton. Climate change is projected to
result in more severe weather, including increased occurrence of hurricanes and tropical storms.
Because of this, the occurrence of hurricanes will increase in the future.
Impact
A description of the damages that could occur due to a hurricane is described by the Saffir-Simpson
scale, as shown in Table 11 above. The City faces a “limited” impact from hurricanes, with 10 percent or
less of Northampton affected.
Vulnerability
Based on the above analysis, Northampton has a hazard index rating of “3 – medium risk” from
hurricanes and tropical storms.
Using a total value of all structures in Northampton of $2,742,056,622 and an estimated 10 percent of
damage to 5 percent of all structures, the estimated amount of wind damage from a hurricane is
$13,710,283. Estimating that flooding would create 10 percent of damage to 20 percent of structures,
the resulting damage would be $54,841,132. The cost of repairing or replacing the roads, bridges,
utilities, and contents of structures is not included in this estimate.
11 "Western Massachusetts escapes Hurricane Sandy's wrath, but impact elsewhere still being felt."
http://www.masslive.com/news/index.ssf/2012/10/western_massachusetts_escapes.html. October 30,
2012. Accessed March 6, 2015.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 71
Populations
Populations unable to safely evacuate are most at risk during a Hurricane or Tropical Storm hazard. Low
income populations may lack means to evacuate. The elderly often face physical challenges or require
regular medical attention. Limited English proficiency populations may face challenges receiving and
understanding emergency directions.
Built Environment and Economy
The entire town would be vulnerable to the impact of a hurricane or tropical storm. Hurricanes and
tropical storms can result in power outages and road closures that impact emergency response. Heavy
rains can lead to contamination of well water, septic system failure, and overburdened stormwater
systems. Areas prone to flooding are particularly vulnerable. Additionally, high winds could impact the
City’s communication and energy infrastructure, and damage older buildings.
Sometimes, wind gusts of only 40 to 45 mph can cause scattered power outages from downed trees and
wires. This is especially true after periods of prolonged drought, excessive rainfall, or insect damage,
since all are situations that can weaken the root systems and branches and make them more susceptible
to the winds’ effects. Roads may become impassable due to downed trees or roadway flooding resulting
from a severe wind or thunderstorm.
Natural Environment
High winds, flooding, and large quantities of debris can damage the natural environment through
contamination of resources, felling trees, scouring riverbeds, and injury and mortality of animals.
Severe Winter Storm / Nor’easter
Hazard Description
Severe winter storms include ice storms, nor’easters, heavy snow, blowing snow, ice storms, and other
extreme forms of winter precipitation.
Snow is characterized as frozen precipitation in the form of six-sided ice crystal. In order for snow to
occur, temperatures in the atmosphere (from ground level to cloud level) must be at or below freezing.
The strongest form of a severe snow storm is a blizzard. Blizzards are characterized by frequent wind
gusts above 35 miles per hour, limited to no visibility due to falling snow and extreme cold that lasts
longer than three hours.
Ice storms are liquid rain that falls and freezes upon contact with cold objects. There must be an ice
build-up of greater than ¼ inch for it to be considered an ice storm. When more than a ½ inch of ice
build-up is forecasted a winter storm warning can be triggered.
72 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Nor’easters are among winter’s most ferocious storms. They are characterized by a large counter-
clockwise wind circulation around a low-pressure center, and are known for producing heavy snow, high
winds, and rain. These storms occur most often in late fall and early winter.
Severe winter storms can pose a significant risk to property and human life. The rain, freezing rain, ice,
snow, cold temperatures and wind associated with these storms can cause the following hazards:
Disrupted power and phone service
Unsafe roadways and increased traffic accidents
Infrastructure and other property are also at risk from severe winter storms and the associated
flooding that can occur following heavy snow melt
Tree damage and fallen branches that cause utility line damage and roadway blockages
Damage to telecommunications structures
Reduced ability of emergency officials to respond promptly to medical emergencies or fires
Elderly are affected by extreme weather
New England generally experiences at least one or two severe winter storms each year with varying
degrees of severity. Research on climate change indicates that there is great potential for stronger,
more frequent storms as the global temperature increases. Severe winter storms typically occur during
January and February; however, they can occur from late September through late April.
Location
The entire City of Northampton is susceptible to severe snowstorms, which means the location of
occurrence is “large.” Because these storms occur regionally, they would impact the entire city.
Extent
Since 2005, the Regional Snowfall Index (RSI) has become the descriptor of choice for measuring winter
events that impact the six climactic regions in the eastern two-thirds of the U.S. The RSI ranks
snowstorm impacts on a scale system from 1 to 5 as depicted in the table below. The RSI is similar to the
scale used to measure tornadoes (Fujita) or hurricanes (Saffir-Simpson), with the added benefit of
considering population as a variable. The RSI is based on three factors: the spatial extent of the storm,
the amount of snowfall, and population (NOAA, n.d.). As a regional index, the RSI incorporates region-
specific parameters and thresholds for calculating a storm’s category. Snowfall thresholds in
Massachusetts (in the Northeast region) are 4, 10, 20, and 30 inches of snowfall, while thresholds in the
Southeast U.S. are 2, 5, 10, and 15 inches.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 73
Regional Snowfall Index Categories, Corresponding RSI Values, and Description
Category RSI Value Description
1 1—3 Notable
2 3—6 Significant
3 6—10 Major
4 10—18 Crippling
5 18.0+ Extreme
Source: NCDC, n.d.
Prior to the RSI, the Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale (NESIS) was the ranking system used. It was
developed by Paul Kocin of The Weather Channel and Louis Uccellini of the National Weather Service
(Kocin and Uccellini, 2004) to characterize and rank high-impact Northeast snowstorms. These storms
have large areas of 10-inch snowfall accumulations and greater. NESIS has five categories: Extreme,
Crippling, Major, Significant, and Notable. The index differs from other meteorological indices in that it
uses population information in addition to meteorological measurements. Thus NESIS gives an indication
of a storm's societal impacts.
NESIS scores are a function of the area affected by the snowstorm, the amount of snow, and the
number of people living in the path of the storm. The aerial distribution of snowfall and population
information are combined in an equation that calculates a NESIS score which varies from around one for
smaller storms to over ten for extreme storms. The raw score is then converted into one of the five
NESIS categories. The largest NESIS values result from storms producing heavy snowfall over large areas
that include major metropolitan centers.
Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale Categories
Category NESIS Value Description
1 1—2.499 Notable
2 2.5—3.99 Significant
3 4—5.99 Major
4 6—9.99 Crippling
5 10.0+ Extreme
Source: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/snow-and-ice/rsi/nesis
The Sperry-Piltz Ice Accumulation (SPIA) Index (below) is a prediction tool (algorithm) that can be used in
conjunction with National Weather Service data to predict the impact of winter weather in terms of ice
damage. It is currently being tested by the National Weather Service and FEMA in several regions with
potential implementation in the future. In the meantime, the index provides an outline of the potential
damage impacts of ice storms based on accumulation and wind.
74 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
The Sperry-Piltz Ice Accumulation (SPIA) Index
Ice Damage
Index
Damage and Impact Descriptions
0 Minimal risk of damage to exposed utility systems; no alerts or advisories needed
for crews, few outages.
1 Some isolated or localized utility interruptions are possible, typically lasting only a
few hours. Roads and bridges may become slick and hazardous.
2 Scattered utility interruptions expected, typically lasting 12 to 24 hours. Roads and
travel conditions may be extremely hazardous due to ice accumulation.
3 Numerous utility interruptions with some damage to main feeder lines and
equipment expected. Tree limb damage is excessive. Outages lasting 1-5 days.
4 Prolonged and widespread utility interruptions with extensive damage to main
distribution feeder lines and some high voltage transmission lines/structures/
Outages lasting 5-10 days.
5 Catastrophic damage to entire exposed utility systems, including both distribution
and transmission networks. Outages could last several weeks in some areas.
Shelters needed.
Source: http://www.spia-index.com/images/SPIAIndexDescription.png
The extent of a severe winter storm event would be “Critical,” with 25 percent or more of property in
the affected area damaged, multiple injuries possible, and a complete shutdown of facilities for more
than one week.
Previous Occurrences
There is significant overlap between winter weather disasters and other types of disaster, such as
flooding. Based on data available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, there
were 27 winter storms in the Northeast Urban Corridor since 2010 that have registered on the NESIS
scale. Of these, approximately 13 storms resulted in snow falls of at least 10 inches in the Pioneer Valley.
These storms are listed in Table 13 in order of their NESIS severity.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 75
Table 13. Winter Storms Producing Over 10 inches of Snow in Northampton, 1958-2018
Date NESIS Value NESIS Category NESIS Classification
3/12/1993 13.2 5 Extreme
1/21/2005 6.8 4 Crippling
2/15/2003 7.5 4 Crippling
2/10/1983 6.25 4 Crippling
1/19/1978 6.53 4 Crippling
12/25/1969 6.29 4 Crippling
2/2/1961 7.06 4 Crippling
3/2/1960 8.77 4 Crippling
2/14/1958 6.25 4 Crippling
1/29/2015 5.42 3 Major
2/11/2014 5.28 3 Major
3/12/2017 5.03 3 Major
2/7/2013 4.35 3 Major
1/9/2011 5.31 3 Major
2/23/2010 5.46 3 Major
2/8/1994 5.39 3 Major
2/5/1978 5.78 3 Major
2/18/1972 4.77 3 Major
2/22/1969 4.29 3 Major
1/18/1961 4.04 3 Major
12/11/1960 4.53 3 Major
3/11/2018 3.16 2 Significant
1/25/2015 2.62 2 Significant
3/5/2018 3.45 2 Significant
3/4/2013 3.05 2 Significant
3/15/2007 2.54 2 Significant
4/6/1982 3.35 2 Significant
76 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 13. Winter Storms Producing Over 10 inches of Snow in Northampton, 1958-2018
Date NESIS Value NESIS Category NESIS Classification
2/8/1969 3.51 2 Significant
2/5/1967 3.5 2 Significant
1/3/2018 1.65 1 Notable
2/8/2015 1.32 1 Notable
10/29/2011 1.75 1 Notable
3/31/1997 2.29 1 Notable
2/2/1995 1.43 1 Notable
1/25/1987 1.19 1 Notable
Source: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/snow-and-ice/rsi/nesis
Note: These dates may indicate the beginning of a storm, but may not align with the day the storm impacted Northampton.
Between 2015 and 2020, Hampshire County was not included in any FEMA declared severe winter
storm-related disasters (DR) or emergencies (EM). It should be noted that because population is used as
a criteria for FEMA declarations, the storms that rank higher will be those that impact densely populated
areas and regions such as Boston and other large cities and, as such, might not necessarily reflect the
storms that impact less populated areas. For example, one of the most famous storms in the
Commonwealth in modern history was the Blizzard of ’78, which dropped over two feet of snow in the
Boston area during 65 mph winds that created enormous drifts and stranded hundreds of people on
local highways. The storm hit the snow-weary city that was still digging out of a similar two-foot
snowstorm 17 days earlier. Although Hampshire County received snow from this storm, it was not listed
in the declaration.
The October Snow Storm in 2011, which caused major damages and disruptions across New England,
also impacted Northampton. Most Northampton residents of the City were without electricity for over a
week. While this was a severe storm paired with trees sill in full foliage, most winter storms that hit
Northampton are manageable and simply more of a nuisance. Northampton DPW was awarded
reimbursements from FEMA for emergency work require as a result of this event.
There currently isn’t good local data on ice storms in Northampton. According to the 2013 State Hazard
Mitigation Plan, there were 20 ice storms in Hampshire County between 1971 and 2012. This equates to
a major ice storm every two years. The 2018 Massachusetts State Hazard Mitigation and Climate
Adaptation Plan indicates that ice storms of lesser magnitudes occur on at least an annual basis. Areas
located in higher elevations are more likely to experience ice storms. In recent history, there has been
no loss of life from snow or ice storms, but each year there are incidences of property damage and
personal injuries.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 77
Well-known as the most serious storm to impact Pioneer Valley communities in recent history was the
Ice Storm of December 11, 2008. The storm created widespread downed trees and power outages all
across New York State, Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Over one million customers were without
electricity, with 800,000 without power three days later and some without power weeks later.
Challenging living conditions were acerbated by extremely cold temperatures in the days following the
event.
Known severe snowstorm and ice storm events, including FEMA disaster declarations, that have
impacted Northampton since the 2015 HMP, are identified in Table 14. Detailed information on
damages and impacts are included when available. Please note that not all losses and damages that
have occurred in the City are included due to the extent of documentation and the fact that not all
sources may have been identified or researched.
Table 14. Severe Snowstorm and Ice Storm Events in Northampton, 2015-2020
Dates of
Event
Event
Type
FEMA
Declaration
Number (if
applicable)
Losses/Impacts
October
27, 2016
Winter
Weather
N/A Several inches of wet snow fell across southern New England.
An average of 4-5 inches of snow fell in western Hampshire
County. Most trees still had leaves at this time, allowing the
snow to cause a significant amount of tree damage. There
were many reports from Northampton: a tree was down on a
house on Pentcastle Avenue; trees and wires were down at
Fort Hill Terrace, Clement Street, Hockanum Road; wires were
down on Elm Street, Hatfield Street, and Adare Place; a tree
was down on wires at Mount Tom, Loudville Road at
Westhampton Road, Mountain Road, Old Ferry Road, and
North Farms Road; and a tree was blocking the road at the
intersection of Depot and Main Streets.
December
11, 2016
Heavy
Snow
N/A Up to 6 to 7 inches of snow was reported in the slopes of the
Berkshires, in the higher terrain of northwest Hampshire and
western Franklin Counties. Snowfall totals of 5 inches were
reported in Northampton.
December
29, 2016
Heavy
Snow
N/A 3 to 6 inches of snow was common in western and central
Massachusetts, with 5 to 7 inches in the slopes of the
Berkshires. Numerous reports (amateur radio, social media,
CoCoRaHS, and Cooperative Observer) indicated around 6
inches of snowfall in the towns of western Hampshire County.
5 inches were reported in Northampton. Strong winds
occurred behind the storm during the overnight hours,
causing scattered tree and power line damage, with gusts
mainly in the 30-50 mph range.
March 14, Heavy N/A Winter storm “Stella” moved up the east coast, hugging the
78 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Dates of
Event
Event
Type
FEMA
Declaration
Number (if
applicable)
Losses/Impacts
2017 Snow southern NJ coast then moving rapidly northeast across
southern Rhode Island and interior southeast Massachusetts.
Snowfall rates of 3 inches per hour were observed in western
MA. NESIS value of 5.03, classified as Major
Heavy snow fell throughout much of the day in eastern
Hampshire County, where snowfall totals ranged from 9.2
inches in Amherst to 13.5 inches in Northampton. No
damages were reported.
March 2,
2018
Winter
Storm
N/A This storm brought heavy snow to northwest Massachusetts,
heavy rain and strong winds to central and eastern
Massachusetts, and coastal flooding to the coastline.
Snowfall from one inch to twelve inches fell on Western
Hampshire County, with the 1.5 inches reported in
Northampton.
NESIS value if 3.45, classified as Significant.
March 11,
2018
Snow
storm
N/A No reports were available for Northampton. Snowfall in
Williamsburg reached 12.5 inches, and Westhampton saw 8.2
inches. NESIS value of 3.16, classified as Significant
November
15, 2018
Heavy
Snow /
Nor'easter
N/A An early-season nor'easter moved from the Mid-Atlantic
coast to southeastern Massachusetts on the 15th and away
from the region on the 16th. A quick thump of heavy snow
occurred on the front end of the storm, with most
accumulations over with by or shortly after midnight on the
16th.
Based on numerous reports from CoCoRaHS, trained spotter,
and amateur radio observers, snowfall ranged from 5.0 inches
to 9.5 inches in eastern Hampshire County. 8.0 inches were
reported in Northampton. No damage was reported.
Source: NOAA Storm Events Database, 2020; FEMA 2020; CoCoRaHS, 2020 https://www.cocorahs.org/Maps/ViewMap.aspx?type=snow
Probability of Future Events
Based upon the availability of records for Hampshire County and the NESIS scale, the likelihood that a
severe snow storm will affect Northampton is “high” (between 40 and 70 percent in any given year).
Research on climate change indicates that there is great potential for stronger, more frequent storms as
the global temperature increases. Extreme weather events—including extreme precipitation and
snowfall levels—are anticipated to occur more frequently as climate change occurs. However, as
temperatures throughout the year increase, it is possible that nor’easter events may become more
concentrated in the coldest winter months when atmospheric temperatures are still low enough to
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 79
result in snowfall rather than rain. More information about the effect of Climate Change can be found
at the Climate Change Clearinghouse for the Commonwealth at www.resiilentma.org.
The Massachusetts State Hazard Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Plan has additional information
about the impact of climate change and can be accessed at http://www.resilientma.org/shmcap-
portal/index.html#/full-plan.
Impact
The City faces a “limited” impact or less than 10 percent of total property damaged, from snowstorms.
The weight from multiple snowfall events can test the load ratings of building roofs and potentially
cause significant damage. For example, the roof of JFK Middle School is not designed for multiple heavy
snowfalls. Multiple freeze-thaw cycles can also create large amounts of ice and make for even heavier
roof loads.
Other impacts from snowstorms and ice storms include:
• Disrupted power and phone service
• Unsafe roadways and increased traffic accidents
• Infrastructure and other property are also at risk from severe winter storms and the
associated flooding that can occur following heavy snow melt.
• Tree damage and fallen branches that cause utility line damage and roadway blockages
• Damage to telecommunications structures
• Reduced ability of emergency officials to respond promptly to medical emergencies or fires
Vulnerability
Based on the above assessment, Northampton has a hazard index rating of “3 — medium risk” from
severe winter storms and nor’easters.
Using an estimated value of $2,742,056,622 for all property in the City and an estimated 5 percent of
damage to 10 percent of residential structures, approximately $ 13,710,283 worth of damage could
occur from a severe snowstorm. This is a rough estimate and likely reflects a worst-case
scenario. Computing more detailed damage assessments based on assessor’s records is a labor-
intensive task and beyond the scope of this project. The cost of repairing or replacing the roads, bridges,
utilities, and contents of structures is not included in this estimate.
Populations
Winter storms are considered deceptive killers because most deaths and other impacts or losses are
indirectly related to the storm. They generally bring strong winds which create blizzard conditions with
blinding wind-driven snow, drifting snow, and extreme cold temperatures with dangerous wind chill.
Injuries and deaths may occur due to traffic accidents on icy roads, heart attacks while shoveling snow,
or hypothermia from prolonged exposure to cold. Heavy snow can paralyze a region or town, shuttin g
80 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
down transportation, stopping the flow of supplies, and disrupting medical and emergency services.
Accumulations of snow can cause buildings to collapse and knock down trees and power lines. Rural
populations especially may become isolated by downed trees, blocked roadways, and power outages.
Residents may be displaced or require temporary to long-term sheltering.
Elderly populations are particularly susceptible to risks of extreme winter weather such as injury from
falls, hypothermia, and overexertion. Low income residents are also susceptible if they are not able to
secure housing with adequate insulation and heating.
Built Environment and Economy
The City of Northampton’s power and communication infrastructure are vulnerable to the impacts of a
severe winter storm. Because many of Northampton’s streets are lined with mature trees, a severe
snow or ice storm could also cause damage and power outages from downed trees. This could cause
residents and businesses to lose power and could impact the City’s ability to operate normally,
impacting the City’s economy. Additionally, buildings with flat roofs are especially vulnerable to damage,
especially when the snow is wet and heavy.
Most winter storm events that occur in Northampton are not accompanied by a FEMA Emergency or
Disaster declaration and, as a result, all costs associated with the events are borne by local City budgets.
Any City response to the events listed in the Previous Occurrences section above would have likely
included payroll overtime for DPW staff. Furthermore, spending on snow and ice operations in the City
typically exceeds the budgeted amount and, because it comes out of the General Fund, requires a City
Council transfer to cover the deficit. For example, the original allocation for FY19 was $500,000, the
revised budget was $664,291, and the amount expended was $663,446. This included personnel services
and ordinary maintenance for: repair and maintenance of vehicles, snow removal, communication,
weather reports, vehicle supplies, fuel, snow removal supplies and food. If the frequency of severe
winter storms increase in future years, so will the financial burden on taxpayers to support City
response.
Natural Resources
Severe winter weather is common in Massachusetts and native species and habitats are well adapted to
withstand most winter weather.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 81
Severe Thunderstorm / Wind / Tornado
Hazard Description
A thunderstorm is a storm with lightning and thunder produced by a cumulonimbus cloud, usually
producing gusty winds, heavy rain, and sometimes hail. Effective January 5, 2010, the NWS modified the
hail size criterion to classify a thunderstorm as ‘severe’ when it produces damaging wind gusts in excess
of 58 mph (50 knots), hail that is 1 inch in diameter or larger (quarter size), or a tornado (NWS, 2013).
Wind is air in motion relative to surface of the earth. For non-tropical events over land, the NWS issues a
Wind Advisory (sustained winds of 31 to 39 mph for at least 1 hour or any gusts 46 to 57 mph) or a High
Wind Warning (sustained winds 40+ mph or any gusts 58+ mph). For non-tropical events over water, the
NWS issues a small craft advisory (sustained winds 25-33 knots), a gale warning (sustained winds 34-47
knots), a storm warning (sustained winds 48 to 63 knots), or a hurricane force wind warning (sustained
winds 64+ knots). For tropical systems, the NWS issues a tropical storm warning for any areas (inland or
coastal) that are expecting sustained winds from 39 to 73 mph. A hurricane warning is issued for any
areas (inland or coastal) that are expecting sustained winds of 74 mph. Effects from high winds can
include downed trees and/or power lines and damage to roofs, windows, etc. High winds can cause
scattered power outages. High winds are also a hazard for the boating, shipping, and aviation industry
sectors.
Tornadoes are swirling columns of air that typically form in the spring and summer during severe
thunderstorm events. In a relatively short period of time and with little or no advance warning, a
tornado can attain rotational wind speeds in excess of 250 miles per hour and can cause severe
devastation along a path that ranges from a few dozen yards to over a mile in width. The path of a
tornado may be hard to predict because they can stall or change direction abruptly. Within
Massachusetts, tornadoes have occurred most frequently in Worcester County and in communities west
of Worcester, including towns in eastern Hampshire County. High wind speeds, hail, and debris
generated by tornadoes can result in loss of life, downed trees and power lines, and damage to
structures and other personal property (cars, etc.).
Location
As per the Massachusetts Hazard Mitigation Plan, the entire City is at risk of high winds, severe
thunderstorms, and tornadoes. The plan also identifies Northampton and the surrounding communities
as having a high frequency of tornados occurrence within Massachusetts. However, the actual area
affected by thunderstorms, wind, or tornadoes is “small,” with less than 10 percent of the City affected.
Extent
An average thunderstorm is 15 miles across and lasts 30 minutes; severe thunderstorms can be much
larger and longer. Southern New England typically experiences 10 to 15 days per year with severe
thunderstorms. Thunderstorms can cause hail, wind, and flooding.
82 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
The extent of hail that can be present in severe thunderstorms can be found in the table below.
Hail Extent
Hail Size Object Analog
.50 Marble, moth ball
.75 Penny
.88 Nickel
1.00 Quarter
1.25 Half dollar
1.50 Walnut, ping pong
1.75 Golf ball
2.00 Hen egg
2.50 Tennis ball
2.75 Baseball
3.00 Tea cup
4.00 Grapefruit
4.50 Softball
Source: http://www.spc.noaa.gov/misc/tables/hailsize.htm
Tornadoes are measured using the enhanced F-Scale, shown with the following categories and
corresponding descriptions of damage:
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 83
Enhanced Fujita Scale Levels and Descriptions of Damage
EF-Scale
Number
Intensity
Phrase
3-Second
Gust (MPH) Type of Damage Done
EF0 Gale 65–85 Some damage to chimneys; breaks branches off trees; pushes
over shallow-rooted trees; damages to sign boards.
EF1 Moderate 86–110
The lower limit is the beginning of hurricane wind speed; peels
surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed off foundations or
overturned; moving autos pushed off the roads; attached
garages may be destroyed.
EF2 Significant 111–135
Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile
homes demolished; boxcars pushed over; large trees snapped
or uprooted; light object missiles generated.
EF3 Severe 136–165 Roof and some walls torn off well-constructed houses; trains
overturned; most trees in forest uprooted.
EF4 Devastating 166–200
Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak
foundations blown off some distance; cars thrown and large
missiles generated.
Previous Occurrences
Within Massachusetts, tornadoes have occurred most frequently in Worcester County and in
communities west of Worcester. The most common months are June, July, and August, but the Great
Barrington, MA tornado (1995) occurred in May and the Windsor Locks, CT tornado (1979) occurred in
October.
Since the 1950s, there have been 10 tornadoes reported in Hampshire County. Most recently, on
February 25, 2017, an EF1 tornado touched down in Conway and Goshen, Massachusetts. The tornado
damaged dozens of homes, hundreds of trees and left 75% of the residents without power. This was the
first tornado in Massachusetts to touch down in February since record keeping stated in the 1950s.
Only thee recorded tornadoes have touched down in Northampton: a category F1 on June 2, 2000, a
category F2 on August 14, 1958, and a category F3 on September 13, 1971. No records contained
information about damage or specific locations of touchdown, however the 1958 tornado was
documented in southeastern Northampton and the 1971 tornado was documented in Florence. The
2000 tornado touched down in Leeds in June.12 This tornado was ranked F1 (Moderate Tornado) on the
Fujita Scale of Tornado Intensity.
12 National Climactic Data Center
84 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Probability of Future Events
One measure of tornado activity is the tornado index value. It is calculated based on historical tornado
events data using USA.com algorithms. It is an indicator of the tornado level in a region. A higher
tornado index value means a higher chance of tornado events. Data was used for Hampshire County to
determine the Tornado Index Value as shown in the table below.
Tornado Index for Hampshire County
Hampshire County 125.73
Massachusetts 87.60
United States 136.45
Source: USA.com http://www.usa.com/hampshire-county-ma-natural-disasters-extremes.htm
Based upon the available historical record, even given Northampton’s location in a high-density cluster
of state-wide tornado activity, there is a “very low” probability (less than 1 percent chance in any given
year) of a tornado affecting the City.
As per the Massachusetts Hazard Mitigation Plan, there are approximately 10 to 30 days of
thunderstorm activity in the state each year. Thus, there is a “moderate” probability (10 percent to 40
percent chance in any given year) of a severe thunderstorm or winds affecting the City.
Impact
Overall, Northampton faces a “limited” impact from severe thunderstorms, winds, or tornadoes, with 10
percent or less of the City affected.
As indicated as part of the Enhanced Fujita Scale Levels for tornados, the following impacts can result
from a tornado:
• EFO - Some damage to chimneys; breaks branches off trees; pushes over shallow-rooted
trees; damages to sign boards.
• EF1 - The lower limit is the beginning of hurricane wind speed; peels surface off roofs;
mobile homes pushed off foundations or overturned; moving autos pushed off the roads;
attached garages may be destroyed.
• EF2 - Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile homes demolished;
boxcars pushed over; large trees snapped or uprooted; light object missiles generated.
• EF3 - Roof and some walls torn off well-constructed houses; trains overturned; most trees in
forest uprooted.
• EF4 - Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak foundations blown off some
distance; cars thrown and large missiles generated.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 85
Vulnerability
Based on the above assessment, Northampton has a hazard index rating of “4- low risk” from severe
thunderstorms and tornadoes, and a “4 – Medium risk” from high winds.
The potential for locally catastrophic damage is a factor in any tornado, severe thunderstorm, or wind
event. In Northampton, a tornado that hit the residential areas would leave much more damage than a
tornado with a travel path that ran along the city’s forested uplands, where little settlement has
occurred. Most buildings in the city have not been built to Zone 1, Design Wind Speed Codes. The first
edition of the Massachusetts State Building Code went into effect on January 1, 1975, and 85 percent of
the City’s housing was constructed prior to this date.
Using a total value of all structures in Northampton of $2,742,056,662 and an estimated 10 percent of
damage to 5 percent of all structures, the estimated amount of damage from a tornado is $13,710,283.
The cost of repairing or replacing the roads, bridges, utilities, and contents of structures is not included
in this estimate.
Populations
Populations unable to safely evacuate are most at risk from tornados. Low income populations may lack
means to evacuate. The elderly often face physical challenges or require regular medical attention.
Limited English Proficiency (LEP) populations may face challenges receiving and understanding
emergency directions.
Built Environment and Economy
The most common problem associated with severe weather is loss of utilities. Downed trees from
severe wind storms can create serious impacts on power and aboveground communication lines. Water
and sewer systems may not function if power is lost. The vulnerabilities associated with flooding could
be present if substantial rain accompanies severe thunderstorms. Additionally, severe wind may damage
older buildings. Many buildings throughout Northampton are older and designed to withstand lower
wind speeds, meaning they are more vulnerable to damage from high wind events, microbursts of
tornadoes.
Sometimes, wind gusts of only 40 to 45 mph can cause scattered power outages from downed trees and
wires. This is especially true after periods of prolonged drought or excessive rainfall, since both are
situations that can weaken the root systems and make them more susceptible to the winds’ effects.
Roads may become impassable due to downed trees or roadway flooding resulting from a severe wind
or thunderstorm.
Natural Resources
Downed trees and the transportation of small flora and fauna by high winds can cause damage to the
natural environment.
86 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Earthquake
Hazard Description
An earthquake is a sudden, rapid shaking of the ground that is caused by the breaking and shifting of
rock beneath the Earth’s surface. Earthquakes can occur suddenly, without warning, at any time of the
year. New England experiences an average of 30 to 40 earthquakes each year although most are not
noticed by people.13 Ground shaking from earthquakes can rupture gas mains and disrupt other utility
service, damage buildings, bridges and roads, and trigger other hazardous events such as avalanches,
flash floods (dam failure) and fires. Un-reinforced masonry buildings, buildings with foundations that
rest on filled land or unconsolidated, unstable soil, and mobile homes not tied to their foundations are
at risk during an earthquake.14
Location
Because of the regional nature of the hazard, the entire City of Northampton is susceptible to
earthquakes. This makes the location of occurrence “high,” or over 50 percent of the total area.
Extent
The magnitude of an earthquake is measured using the Richter Scale, which measures the energy of an
earthquake by determining the size of the greatest vibrations recorded on the seismogram. On this
scale, one step up in magnitude (from 5.0 to 6.0, for example) increases the energy more than 30 times.
Richter Scale Magnitudes and Effects
Magnitude Effects
< 3.5 Generally not felt, but recorded.
3.5 - 5.4 Often felt, but rarely causes damage.
5.4 - 6.0 At most slight damage to well-designed buildings. Can cause major damage to poorly
constructed buildings over small regions.
6.1 - 6.9 Can be destructive in areas up to about 100 kilometers across where people live.
7.0 - 7.9 Major earthquake. Can cause serious damage over larger areas.
8 or > Great earthquake. Can cause serious damage in areas several hundred kilometers across.
13 Northeast States Emergency Consortium Web site: www.nesec.org/hazards/earthquakes.cfm.
14 Federal Emergency Management Agency Web site:
www.fema.gov/hazards/earthquakes/quake.shtm.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 87
The intensity of an earthquake is measured using the Modified Mercalli Scale. This scale quantifies the
effects of an earthquake on the Earth’s surface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made structures on
a scale of I through XII, with I denoting a weak earthquake and XII denoting an earthquake that causes
almost complete destruction.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale for and Effects
Scale Intensity Description Of Effects
Corresponding
Richter Scale
Magnitude
I Instrumental Detected only on seismographs.
II Feeble Some people feel it. < 4.2
III Slight Felt by people resting; like a truck rumbling
by.
IV Moderate Felt by people walking.
V Slightly Strong Sleepers awake; church bells ring. < 4.8
VI Strong Trees sway; suspended objects swing,
objects fall off shelves. < 5.4
VII Very Strong Mild alarm; walls crack; plaster falls. < 6.1
VIII Destructive
Moving cars uncontrollable; masonry
fractures, poorly constructed buildings
damaged.
IX Ruinous Some houses collapse; ground cracks; pipes
break open. < 6.9
X Disastrous
Ground cracks profusely; many buildings
destroyed; liquefaction and landslides
widespread.
< 7.3
XI Very Disastrous
Most buildings and bridges collapse; roads,
railways, pipes and cables destroyed;
general triggering of other hazards.
< 8.1
XII Catastrophic Total destruction; trees fall; ground rises
and falls in waves. > 8.1
Source: US Federal Emergency Management Agency
88 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Previous Occurrences
The most recent earthquakes to affect Northampton are shown in the table below. According to the
Northeast States Emergency Consortium, only one magnitude 4 or higher earthquake has occurred in
New England since 2010. This was a 4.6 magnitude earthquake centered at Hollis Center Maine, on
October 16, 2012. This earthquake was not noted to cause any damage in Northampton or the
surrounding area.
Table 15. Largest Earthquakes Affecting Northampton, MA, 1924 – 2020
Location Date Magnitude
Ossipee, NH December 20, 1940 5.5
Ossipee, NH December 24, 1940 5.5
Dover-Foxcroft, ME December 28, 1947 4.5
Kingston, RI June 10, 1951 4.6
Portland, ME April 26, 1957 4.7
Middlebury, VT April 10, 1962 4.2
Near NH Quebec Border, NH June 15, 1973 4.8
West of Laconia, NH Jan. 19, 1982 4.5
Plattsburg, NY April 20, 2002 5.1
Bar Harbor, NH October 3, 2006 4.2
Hollis Center, ME October 16, 2012 4.6
Source: Northeast States Emergency Consortium, 2019 website: www.nesec.org/hazards/earthquakes.cfm
Table 16. New England States Record of Historic Earthquakes
State Years of Record Number Of Earthquakes
Connecticut 1678 - 2016 115
Maine 1766 - 2016 454
Massachusetts 1668 - 2016 408
New Hampshire 1638 - 2016 320
Rhode Island 1766 - 2016 34
Vermont 1843 - 2016 50
New York 1737-2016 551
Note: Total Number of Earthquakes within the New England states between 1568 and 2007 is 1,932.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 89
Source: Northeast States Emergency Consortium website, www.nesec.org/hazards/earthquakes.cfm
Probability of Future Events
One measure of earthquake activity is the Earthquake Index Value. It is calculated based on historical
earthquake events data using USA.com algorithms. It is an indicator of the earthquake activity level in a
region. A higher earthquake index value means a higher chance of earthquake events. Data was used for
Hampshire County to determine the Earthquake Index Value as shown in the table below.
Earthquake Index for Hampshire County
Hampshire County 0.17
Massachusetts 0.70
United States 1.81
Source: USA.com
Based upon existing records, there is a “very low” frequency (less than 1 percent probability in any given
year) of an earthquake in Northampton.
Impact
Massachusetts introduced earthquake design requirements into their building code in 1975 and
improved building code for seismic reasons in the 1980s. However, these specifications apply only to
new buildings or to extensively-modified existing buildings. Buildings, bridges, water supply lines,
electrical power lines and facilities built before the 1980s may not have been designed to withstand the
forces of an earthquake. This is particularly true for a large number of the buildings in downtown
Northampton, most of which could likely be completely destroyed by a significant earthquake. The
seismic standards have also been upgraded with the 1997 revision of the State Building Code.
Liquefaction of the land near water could also lead to extensive destruction.
While a significant earthquake, estimated to be approximately of magnitude 6.1 or higher, would cause
a “critical” impact, with more than 25 percent of Northampton affected, a smaller earthquake that is
more likely to occur in Northampton would have "minor" impact, with only small damage to property.
As shown in the table of the Richter Scale above, an earthquake of 6.0 or lower would result in at most
slight damage to well-designed buildings, which are the vast majority of structures in Northampton.
Earthquakes between 3.5 and 5.4 would be felt but rarely cause damage, and earthquakes smaller than
3.5 would not be noticed. Therefore, the overall impact rating for earthquake in Northampton is
“Limited.”
Vulnerability
Based on the above analysis, Northampton has a hazard index rating of “4- low risk” from earthquakes.
Using a total value of all structures in Northampton of $2,742,056,662 and an estimated 100 percent of
90 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
damage to 25 percent of all structures (“critical” impact), the estimated amount of damage from an
earthquake is $685,514,166. The cost of repairing or replacing the roads, bridges, utilities, and contents
of structures is not included in this estimate.
Populations
Socially vulnerable populations are at the highest risk from earthquakes. These populations may lack the
means physically or financially to respond to an earthquake. They may not be able to prepare and live
self-sufficiently in the aftermath of an earthquake. Low-income populations are more likely to live in
structurally compromised buildings.
Built Environment and Economy
Older buildings are particularly vulnerable to earthquakes because their construction pre-dates building
codes that included strong seismic consideration. The City has a number of historical buildings that
could be damaged or destroyed if a large enough earthquake were to happen. A loss of these historic
buildings could represent a loss of Northampton’s history and culture. There have been no studies done
to determine how Northampton’s critical infrastructure, such as the City Hall, would fair in an
earthquake. The City’s Public Safety Complex was built recently and would likely withstand an
earthquake with little or no damage.
There are many ways in which Northampton‘s structures, infrastructure, and individuals would be
vulnerable to earthquakes. Road closures could isolate populations and keep people from getting to
work, and loss of utilities could impact populations that suffered no direct damage from the earthquake
itself. Following a severe earthquake, damage to roadways, bridges or underpasses that serve as
evacuation routes would limit access to emergency services and hospitals.
A catastrophic earthquake in Northampton would impact all structures, commercial and residential
alike. FEMA research has shown that nearly 1 in 4, or 25%, of businesses do not return after a major
catastrophic event. The loss of 25% of businesses would have a major impact on City tax income and
operating budget. A significant loss of homes due to the same earthquake could also have major tax
implications that could strain City cash flow for years after the event.
Natural Resources
A strong earthquake can cause trees to fall and cliffs or rock outcroppings to collapse. Such
environmental damage can impact the balance within a habitat or ecosystem leading to increased
vulnerability to invasive species.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 91
Pandemic and Epidemic
Hazard Description
Pandemic is defined as an epidemic occurring worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing
international boundaries and usually affecting a large number of people. Different from a pandemic, an
epidemic occurs when new cases of a certain disease, in a given population, substantially exceed what is
expected. An epidemic may be restricted to one locale, and if it becomes global it is called a pandemic.
The severity of any pandemic can be higher when a large number of people in the population lack pre-
existing immunity to the causative agent or when a larger proportion of the population is infected.
Organisms that cause pandemics may be transmitted from animals to humans, but the potential to
cause a pandemic is increased when organisms are readily transmitted from human to human,
especially before a person has any symptoms.
A pandemic will cause both widespread and sustained effects and is likely to stress the resources of the
federal, state, and local governments and health departments. The Massachusetts Department of Public
Health is the primary agency responsible for the study, planning, isolation/quarantine and actions,
surveillance, and reporting for all public health emergencies in Massachusetts.
The following diseases, in alphabetical order, have potential to become widespread, potentially affecting
Northampton.
Coronavirus is a kind of common virus that causes an infection in the nose, sinuses, or upper throat.
There are many different kinds of coronaviruses, and while most are not dangerous, some cause
disease. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2) is one such infectious disease caused by a newly
discovered coronavirus that emerged in China in December 2019. The COVID-19 virus spreads primarily
through droplets of saliva or discharge from the mouth or nose when an infected person coughs or
sneezes. Most people infected with the COVID-19 virus will experience mild to moderate respiratory
illness and recover without requiring special treatment, and symptoms tend to present within 14 days of
exposure to the virus. Older people and those with underlying medical problems like cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease and cancer, are more likely to develop serious illness.
SARS, or severe acute respiratory syndrome, is is another type of coronavirus that had an outbreak
originating in China in 2003 and spread to other countries before ending in 2004.
Ebola virus disease is a rare and deadly disease caused by infection with one of the Ebola virus species.
Ebola viruses are transmitted through direct contact with contaminated blood or body fluids of a person
who is sick or has died from Ebola. Ebola virus may have spread in central and west Africa as a result of
handling wild animals hunted for food. Ebola was first discovered in 1976 near the Ebola River in what is
now the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the virus is now found in several African countries
(https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/history/distribution-map.html) where outbreaks have
occurred sporadically. There have been no reported cases of Ebola virus disease contracted in the
United States, but in 2014, two U.S. residents were infected with Ebola virus while traveling to areas
92 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
where it is found, and were diagnosed in the United States; two healthcare workers who provided care
for the first of these patients also became infected with Ebola virus (CDC 2020).
HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus, is a viral infection that can be transmitted between two
individuals by exposure to certain body fluids through sexual intercourse, sharing needles or syringes,
from an infected mother to child during pregnancy or breastfeeding, and by receiving a blood
transfusion, blood products, or organ/tissue transplants that are contaminated by HIV (currently an
extremely small risk in the United States). If left untreated after HIV is contracted, the viral infection
severely compromises the immune system and leads to AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome).
There is no effective cure for HIV, but it can be controlled with proper medical care and antiretroviral
therapy. The first official report of what became known as the AIDS epidemic occurred in 1981 (CDC
2020).
Influenza (Flu) is an infectious viral disease of birds and mammals commonly transmitted through the air
through coughing and sneezing. Influenza type A viruses are found in many different animals and in rare
cases can evolve to infect humans (https://www.cdc.gov/flu/other_flu.htm). Influenza B viruses
circulate widely only among humans. People who have influenza can have some or all of these
symptoms: fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, muscle aches, headaches, fatigue, and sometimes
vomiting and diarrhea. Complications from influenza virus infection can be moderate (e.g., sinus or ear
infections) to severe (e.g., pneumonia, inflammation of the heart [myocarditis], inflammation of the
brain [encephalitis], failure of multiple organs, and death).
The CDC describes an influenza pandemic as a global outbreak of a new influenza A virus when new
(novel) influenza A viruses emerge which are able to infect people easily and spread from person to
person in an efficient and sustained way. New/novel influenza virus strains, or strains that had not
circulated widely among the living population caused pandemics in the late 20th and 21st centuries
(https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/basics/past-pandemics.html). Vaccines against a novel
pandemic influenza will not be available immediately in most pandemics (CDC 2020).
Measles (also known as rubella) is a serious respiratory disease caused by the measles virus. It can lead
to pneumonia, encephalitis (swelling of the brain), and death. Measles is one of the most contagious of
all infectious diseases: approximately 90% of susceptible people with close contact to someone with
measles will get measles. The virus spreads through aerosols produced by coughing or sneezing. The
measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine protects against measles (CDC 2020).
Mosquito-borne diseases are those transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito. They
include Chikungunya, dengue, malaria, Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE), West Nile virus (WNV) disease, and
Zika virus disease. Diseases included in this plan that seem most relevant to Northampton are West Nile
virus disease and Zika virus disease.
West Nile virus is the leading cause of mosquito-borne disease in the continental United States
and is most commonly spread to people by mosquito bites. About 1 in 5 people who are
infected have a fever and other symptoms. About 1 out of 150 infected people develop a
serious, sometimes fatal, illness. There are no vaccines to prevent WNV disease in humans and
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 93
no specific medications to treat WNV disease. WNV has been reported from all states in the
continental United States (CDC 2020).
Zika virus is mostly transmitted by the bite of an infected Aedes species mosquito (Aedes
aegypti and Aedes albopictus), but can also spread through sex, from an infected pregnant
woman to her fetus, and likely by transfusion of tainted blood. Many people infected with Zika
virus won’t have symptoms or will only have mild symptoms. The most common symptoms of
Zika virus disease are fever, rash, headache, joint pain, red eyes, and muscle pain. Zika virus
infection during pregnancy can cause a birth defect of the brain called microcephaly and other
severe brain defects. It is also linked to other problems, such as miscarriage, stillbirth, and other
birth defects. Anyone who lives in or travels to an area where local transmission of Zika virus is
occurring can be infected. Once a person has been infected, he or she is likely to be protected
from future infections.
Prior to 2014, very few travel-associated cases of Zika virus disease were identified in the United
States. In 2015 and 2016, large outbreaks of the virus occurred in the Americas, resulting in an
increase in travel-associated cases in the U.S., widespread transmission in Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Virgin Islands, and limited local transmission in Florida and Texas. Cases in the U.S. started
to decline in 2017, and in 2018 and 2019 no confirmed Zika virus disease cases were reported
from United States territories.
The mosquito species known to transmit Zika virus are able to live and reproduce in some areas
of Massachusetts, and this range may change to cover the entire state given warming
temperatures associated with climate change. Furthermore, these mosquitos could be
imported (for example, in tires or potted plants) from areas where they occur (CDC 2020).
Mumps
Mumps is a contagious disease that is caused by the mumps virus. It is spread through saliva or mucus
from the mouth, nose, or throat through coughing, sneezing or talking, sharing items such as cups or
eating utensils, and touching contaminated objects. Mumps typically starts with a few days of fever;
headache, muscle aches, tiredness, and loss of appetite, and is followed by swelling of salivary glands.
Some people who get mumps have very mild or no symptoms; most people with mumps recover
completely in a few weeks. Others may experience symptoms and serious complications. There is no
specific treatment for mumps. Anyone who is not immune from either previous mumps infection or
from vaccination can get mumps. However, outbreaks can also occur in a highly vaccinated population,
especially in settings where people are in close contact, such as colleges and camps (CDC 2020).
94 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Norovirus
Norovirus, formerly called norwalk-like virus, is a very contagious virus that causes diarrhea, vomiting,
and abdominal pain in humans. Fever, chills, headache, body aches and fatigue may also be present.
Norovirus is sometimes called the stomach flu or stomach bug. However, norovirus illness is not related
to the flu which is caused by influenza virus.
Norovirus is spread through contaminated food or water, by contact with an infected person, or by
contamination of environmental surfaces. A person usually develops symptoms 12 to 48 hours after
being exposed to norovirus. Most people with norovirus illness get better within 1 to 3 days. The virus
has an incubation period of 24 to 48 hours. Infected individuals are symptomatic for one to two days,
but can still spread the virus for up to two weeks after recovering (CDC, 2020).
Location and Extent
By definition, a pandemic affects entire populations over large areas, so the whole City of Northampton
could be affected. Densely populated areas have greater potential for person-to-person transmission
than less densely populated areas. Areas of abundant standing water (including areas used for flood
irrigation or dumping sites with discarded plastic and tires) which provide a breeding site for mosquitos
could be more prone to an outbreak of mosquito-borne diseases.
The exact size and extent of an infected population depends on factors related to the virus organism,
the people or animals affected, and the environment. Factors related to the organism include what
species it affects, how much of an organism is needed to establish an infection, how the organism is
transmitted, and how stable it is in a given environment. Factors related to people include how
susceptible they are to infection, how long they are infectious, and the amount of contact between
infected and uninfected individuals.
Previous Occurrences
Infectious diseases have been causing human illness and death since the dawn of human existence. The
effective prevention and control of these diseases is one of the major reasons for increases in life
expectancy. In 1701, Massachusetts passed legislation requiring the isolation of the sick for better
preventing the spread of infection. Since then, Massachusetts has led the nation in infection prevention
and control. Reportable conditions are captured by the Massachusetts Virtual Epidemiologic Network
(MAVEN). MAVEN is an integrated, web-based surveillance and case management system that enables
state and local health departments to appropriately share public health, clinical, and case management
data efficiently and securely over the Internet. MAVEN provides automatic notifications around the
clock to state and local officials of any event requiring immediate attention. (MA SHA, 201915)
15
https://www.mass.gov/files/documents/2017/11/03/Chapter%204.pdf?_ga=2.25220475.759884785.15
89405533-1602091269.1500652517
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 95
The most recent flu pandemics occurred in 1889-90, 1918, 1957, 1968 and 2009. The 1918 pandemic
resulted in an estimated 500,000 deaths in the United States (out of a total population then of about
105 million), the 1968 pandemic caused an estimated 34,000 US deaths (out of a total population then
of about 201 million), and the 2009 (H1N1) pandemic resulted in approximately 12,500 US deaths (out
of a total population then of about 305 million) (CDC, 201716). The H1N1 flu (also referred to as the
swine flu) was first recognized in the Commonwealth in April of 2009. The H1N1 flu was identified by
authorities as a pandemic as it spread quickly to many parts of the world and was declared a public
health emergency in Massachusetts.
Since its emergence as a human disease in 1938, the mosquito-borne virus of eastern equine
encephalitis (EEE) has caused 100 identified human cases, 55 deaths and left 80% of survivors with
permanent neurological damage in Massachusetts. West Nile virus, which first appeared in the US in
1999, has caused at least 148 cases of clinical disease in Massachusetts. Instances of other diseases and
viruses profiled in this chapter may be more common, though not at a pandemic scale.
Between 1954 and 2020, FEMA declared one pandemic-related disaster in the State of Massachusetts.
This declaration was made for all counties in the state on March 27, 2020 for the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Four months earlier, in December, 2019, the Municipal Health Commission in Wuhan, China, had
reported a cluster of cases of pneumonia in Wuhan, Hubei Province. A novel coronavirus that likely
surfaced in a Chinese seafood and poultry market was eventually identified. Officials confirmed the first
recorded case of the virus outside of China in Thailand on January 13, 2020, and by the end of that
month the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) situation report indicated 7818 total confirmed cases
worldwide, with the majority of these in China, and 82 cases reported in 18 countries outside China
including the United States. The first confirmed case in the United States was in Washington State,
where a man in his 30s developed symptoms after returning from a trip to Wuhan. On February 11, the
W.H.O. proposed an official name for the disease caused by the new coronavirus: COVID-19, an acronym
that stands for coronavirus disease 2019. COVID-19 was characterized as a pandemic on March 11,
2020. As of May 28 (the time of writing this report) COVID-19 had spread to at least 203 countries,
killing more than 357,896 and sickening more than 5.8 million people. There are more infections in the
United States than any other country in the world and over 100,000 people have died in the United
States. Massachusetts is fifth in the country for infections and has the third highest death rate in the
country.
The City of Northampton Department of Public Health delivered public service announcements and
situational awareness reports about the evolving pandemic, and ordered closures of non-essential
businesses and some play areas and recreational facilities. Schools were closed and local emergency
shelters activated. The Northampton High School was used as a primary shelter for the City’s most
vulnerable residents who lack housing, and was run cooperatively by the City’s Department of Public
Health, Medical Reserve Corps Coordinator, and ServiceNet, with support from Northampton’s Fire
Rescue and Police Departments and Cooley Dickinson Hospital.
16 https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/pdf/pan-flu-report-2017v2.pdf
96 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
The full extent of the COVID-19 pandemic is yet to be known, but the disconnect between
Massachusetts long-standing commitment to public health and the very high infection rate and
extremely high death rate must be explored and understood.
Probability of Future Events
Future occurrences of pandemic events are expected to continue, although the probability of a major
pandemic impacting Northampton in any given year is “Low,” or less than 10%.17 As bacteria and viruses
continually evolve, there is always the opportunity for new diseases to occur. Factors in Northampton
that heighten the probability of occurrences of such events include large numbers of transient residents
such as college students, and the large number of visitors that move in and out of the City on a daily
basis which could lead to disease transmission through individuals transporting or coming into contact
with infected persons. Factors that reduce the probability of occurrence of high infection rates include
the overwhelmingly white racial make-up of the city as well as the relatively high incomes of most
residents and the very few multi-family residences in which people may be unable to social distance.
Although many of the diseases listed earlier in this section have not been experienced at pandemic
magnitudes, there is the potential of a pandemic occurring at any time, with pandemic influenza being
the most likely.
Pandemics are unpredictable. While history offers useful benchmarks, there is no way to know the
characteristics of a pandemic virus before it emerges. Nevertheless, public health officials must make
assumptions to facilitate planning efforts. According to the 2006 Pandemic Influenza Preparedness,
Response, and Recovery Guide published by Homeland Security, Federal planning efforts assume the
following about the certain eventuality of the next pandemic influenza virus:
Susceptibility to the pandemic influenza virus will be universal.
Efficient and sustained person-to-person transmission signals an imminent pandemic.
Epidemics will last 6 to 8 weeks in affected communities.
Multiple waves (periods during which community outbreaks occur across the country) of illness
are likely to occur with each wave lasting 2 to 3 months. Historically, the largest waves have
occurred in the fall and winter, but the seasonality of a pandemic cannot be predicted with
certainty.
Worldwide, there has been an apparent increase in reports of infectious diseases, which is reflective of
rapid demographic, environmental, social, technological, and other changes in in human society.
Mathematical models predict that climate change will likely affect changes in transmission patterns of
infectious diseases (Climate Change and Human Health, Risks and Responses. World Health
Organization, 2003, http://www.who.int/globalchange/environment/en/chapter6.pdf), although the
relationship between climate change and infectious diseases is complex and not well understood. The
ranges and impacts of important pathogens might change as a result of changing temperatures and
17 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525302/
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 97
precipitation. Changing climate might increase or change the range of disease vectors such as
mosquitoes or rodents. Heavy rainfall and flooding can be associated with waterborne disease
outbreaks, especially where the drinking water supply is not treated. (Advancing the Science of Climate
Change, National Academies Press, 2010, https://www.nap.edu/read/12782/chapter/15#314).
Impact
The severity of an infectious disease pandemic, epidemic, or threat in Northampton varies depending on
the organism, the susceptible population, ease of transmission, ability to identify infected persons
before they can spread disease, and availability and effectiveness of control measures. It is expected
that during a pandemic of influenza, 25% of the population could fall ill (NY Department of Health,
2020)18, and some facilities would be forced to shut down for more than one week. Therefore, the
impact is considered “Critical.”
Pandemics could occur with very little warning. As seen with the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019-2020, air
travel can hasten or facilitate the spread of a new organism and decrease the time available for early
implementation of interventions. When outbreaks of a virus occur simultaneously in many parts of the
country, sharing of human and material resources that would usually occur in response to other
disasters becomes limited. In general, warning time for pandemics will depend on the origin of the virus
and the amount of time needed to identify the virus.
As described in the Massachusetts Emergency Operations Plan (EOP), a yearlong influenza pandemic
without intervention could result in almost 10 million hospitalizations and an estimated 1.9 million
Americans could die. The direct and indirect health costs alone (not including disruptions in trade and
other costs to business and industry) have been estimated to approach $181 billion for a moderate
pandemic (similar to those in 1957 and 1968) with no interventions (CDC, 2017).
Vulnerability
While all individuals could experience pandemic impacts, the COVID-19 crisis showed that the most
vulnerable were the elderly, especially in nursing homes, individuals with pre-existing health issues,
housing insecurities, Frontline communities, and front-line workers including health care workers, social
service providers, delivery personnel, etc. Other infectious diseases have higher risks for children and
pregnant women.
18
https://omh.ny.gov/omhweb/disaster_resources/pandemic_influenza/frequently_asked_questions.htm
98 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Populations
Pandemics throughout history have exacerbated existing public health and socioeconomic disparities.
When diseases become associated with certain people and communities, the stigma and bigotry that
can result often lead to dangerous secondary impacts that often interfere with effective public health
responses. Racial inequalities and health disparities that exist in a society before a pandemic put
disadvantaged and disenfranchised people at greater risk of severe symptoms and complications. During
the COVID-19 outbreak in both New York City and Barcelona, low income neighborhoods where poorer
families are more likely to live in close-quarter housing experienced disproportionately high occurrences
of the disease. These populations are also more likely to work in low-skill labor force, working as
supermarket tellers and elder care providers, which were deemed essential during the crisis and
therefor led to increased exposure to the virus. In Northampton, the greatest challenge for local
emergency responders has been providing adequate sheltering for the region’s homeless and nursing
home residents, while also abiding by social distancing requirements.
Other social impacts of pandemics are the result of strained or suspended community, religious, and
social activities. Schools may be closed for extended periods of time, increasing pressure on families
with working parents. Similarly, places of worship may be closed. Social isolation due to quarantine and
social-distancing guidelines, fear, and unemployment and financial factors can lead to or worsen existing
mental health illness, and lead to an increase in domestic violence and intimate partner violence19.
Economy
In addition to the impact on human health, the impact of a pandemic to national, state, and local
economies would be severe. A pandemic will likely reduce dramatically the number of available workers
in all sectors, and significantly disrupt the movement of people and goods, which will threaten essential
services and operations within and across many economic sectors, especially those that cannot
transition easily to remote working. Given today’s highly mobile population, disease outbreaks may
occur simultaneously throughout the country making the reallocation of human and material resources
more difficult than in other disaster or emergency situations.
Rates of employee absenteeism will depend on the severity of the pandemic. In a severe pandemic,
absenteeism attributable to illness, the need to care for ill family members, and fear of infection would
be highest during the peak weeks of a community outbreak, with lower rates of absenteeism during the
weeks before and after the peak. Certain public health measures (closing schools, quarantining
household contacts of infected individuals, “snow days”) are likely to increase rates of absenteeism.
Economic impacts of a pandemic will be experienced in the short and long term. During a quarantine
period, lost revenues from parking, meals, excise, and marijuana taxes, among others, could have a
19 "Mental health and psychosocial considerations during the COVID-19 outbreak" (PDF). World Health
Organization. 18 March 2020.; Godbole T (9 April 2020). "Domestic violence rises amid coronavirus
lockdowns in Asia". Deutsche Welle (DW). Retrieved 11 April 2020.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 99
major impact on the City’s operating budgets. Unlike an extended power outage that could force similar
business closures, economic shutdowns or slowdowns due to a pandemic can last months or even years,
leading to uncertainty that could limit investments in other important areas such as infrastructure
improvement.
As described in the Dam/Levee Failure and Earthquake hazard profiles above, FEMA research has shown
that nearly 1 in 4, or 25%, of businesses do not return after a major catastrophic event. Social distancing
and other restrictions placed on businesses during a pandemic could restrict revenues so severely that
many businesses would be forced to close permanently. This would have a major impact on City tax
income and operating budget, potentially straining City cash flow for years after the event.
Natural Resources
Widespread mortality and economic shifts that result from a pandemic can lead to profound impacts on
the natural environment. According to anthropologist Elic Weitzel, the social and economic fallout from
the 14th century bubonic plague that wiped out at least one-third of Europe’s population within a few
years had dramatic long-term environmental consequences. Farm fields, abandoned because laborers
died or had to move for economic opportunity, reverted to forest land, lowering atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels. A glacial ice core also revealed a reduction in atmospheric lead pollution due to a
slowdown in mining and metallurgical activity.20 Modern pandemics that necessitate social distancing or
shelter in place orders will reduce airplane and automobile traffic and fossil fuel combustion, reducing
contaminant loads from stormwater runoff entering waterways, and more. In 2020, public health
restrictions to prevent the spread of Covid-19 resulted in a sharp dip in air pollution across China,
Europe and the US, rapidly reducing carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Some estimate
showed environmental pollution reduced up to 30%, and mobility reduced up to 90%.21 It should be
noted that any environmental impacts are minor compared to the great social and economic losses
inflicted by a pandemic.
Other Hazards
In addition to the hazards identified above, the Hazard Mitigation Committee reviewed the full list of
hazards listed in the 2018 Massachusetts State Hazard Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Plan. Due to
the location and context of the City, coastal erosion, landslides, and tsunamis, were determined to not
be a threat.
During the public engagement process for this HMP update, the committee received public comments
that, among other things, highlighted concerns over non-natural hazard events such as gas explosions
and cyber-attack. Gas explosion is one of many man-made hazards that may pose a threat to people,
property, or critical infrastructure in Northampton. Manmade hazards may be included in a Local Hazard
20 https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/covid-19-environment/
21 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720323378
100 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Mitigation Plan according to FEMA, but they are not required and will not be reviewed to meet plan
requirements. See Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning (FEMA 386-7
https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/4528) for suggestions and information on
including these types of hazards in the mitigation plan.
For this Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan update, the Committee only evaluated man-made hazards that
would pose a threat as a result of a natural hazard occurring. These instances are often referred to as
secondary risks or secondary hazards. For instance, secondary risks of a flood include hazardous
materials spills or leaching due to floodwaters reaching extremely high elevations. The secondary risks
of snowstorms could possibly include fires and carbon monoxide poisoning due to the use of alternate
heat sources. The Hazard Mitigation Committee will revisit the discussion about the City’s vulnerability
to man-made hazards during future updates of this Hazard Mitigation Plan. Alternatively, the City may
want to explore these concerns in a complementary planning document such as a Threat and Hazard
Identification and Risk Assessment (THIRA) specific to man-made hazards, or with other disaster
preparedness planning tools.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 101
4: CRITICAL FACILITIES
Section 201.6 44CFR states that a Local Hazard Mitigation Plan risk assessment shall provide a
description of the jurisdictions vulnerability to the identified hazards of concern and this vulnerability
should be described in terms of:
The types and numbers of existing and future buildings, infrastructure, and critical facilities
located in the identified hazard areas.
The law does not specify or define the term “Critical Facility,” but instead allows each unique planning
effort to identify and define those facilities and infrastructure that are critical to providing emergency
services to the planning area. These definitions can and should be unique to the defined planning area.
FEMA defines critical facilities as facilities/infrastructure that are critical to the health and welfare of the
population and that are especially important following hazard events. Critical facilities include, but are
not limited to, shelters, police and fire stations, and hospitals. For the purposes of the Northampton
Hazard Mitigation Plan Update, a Critical Facility is defined as a building, structure, or location which:
• Is vital to the hazard response effort.
• Maintains an existing level of protection from hazards for the community.
• Would create a secondary disaster if a hazard were to impact it.
Critical Facilities within Hazard Areas
Northampton's Hazard Mitigation Committee reviewed the Critical Facilities list from the 2015 Plan, and
made updates based on local knowledge and updated MassGIS data to create the following list.
Northampton's Hazard Mitigation Committee has broken up this list of facilities into three categories:
Facilities needed for Emergency Response in the event of a disaster, referred to as Emergency
Response Facilities and Services.
Non-Emergency Response Facilities that have been identified by the Committee as non-
essential. These are not required in an emergency response event, but are considered essential
for the everyday operation of Northampton.
Facilities/Populations that the Committee wishes to protect in the event of a disaster.
The Critical Facilities Map at the end of this Plan identifies these facilities.
102 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Category 1 – Emergency Response Services
The City has identified the Emergency Response Facilities and Services as the highest priority in regards
to protection from natural and man-made hazards.
1. Emergency Operations Center (EOC)
Northampton Fire Department – Carlon Drive
Northampton Police Department (Secondary EOC) – Center Street
2. Fire Station
Northampton Fire Station – Carlon Drive
Florence Substation – Maple Street
3. Police Station
Northampton Police Station – Center Street
State Police Station B-6 - North King Street
Hampshire County Sheriff - Rocky Hill Road
4. Transportation Network Maintenance
DPW Complex – Locust Street
Forests, Parks, and Cemeteries Facility – 320 North Maple Street
MassDOT Highway Maintenance Shed #1
MassDOT Highway Maintenance Shed #2
5. Potable Water
Water Treatment Plant - Mountain Street, Williamsburg
6. Waste Water and Flood Control
Northampton Wastewater Treatment Plant – Hockanum Road
Seven wastewater pump stations22
Flood control pump stations that are located at the WWTP
West Street flood control pump station
7. Emergency Fuel Storage
DPW Complex Fuel Depot – two above-ground storage tanks, diesel and gasoline, just under
12,000 gallons each
Fire Department Headquarters – Diesel storage tank
22 The Northampton DPW maintains a list for official purposes, but will not compromise this list in a
public plan.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 103
8. Emergency Shelters
Smith Vocational and Agricultural High School (Regional Shelter) – 80 Locust Street
Northampton High School – 380 Elm Street
JFK Middle School – 100 Bridge Road, Florence
Senior Center (cooling/warming center) – 67 Conz Street
All libraries in Northampton elementary schools have cooling capacity, and therefore could be
used as temporary cooling or warming centers as needed.
9. Transfer Station
Northampton Transfer Facility – Locust Street
Secondary Transfer Facility – Glendale Road
10. Helicopter Landing Sites
Northampton Airport – Old Ferry Road
Cooley Dickinson Helicopter Pad – Hospital Road
11. Primary Evacuation Routes
Interstate 91
MA Route 5
MA Route 10
MA Route 9
MA Route 66
MA Route 5 &10
12. Bridges Located on Evacuation Routes
MA Route 10, Earle Street
MA Route 9, Calvin Coolidge Bridge
I-91 bridges
Bicycle and pedestrian only bridges over
CT River, North Street, Main Street
(Route 9), and Easthampton Road
(Route 5).
13. Communication Facilities
Registered Towers
Crown Atlantic Company LLC - Atwood Drive
SBA Infrastructures LLC - 254 Old Wilson Road
IWG Towers Assets I LLC - 790 Florence Road
City of Northampton - 26 Carlon Drive
American Towers LLC – 170 Glendale Road: hosts a repeater for the Police Department as well
as other cell subleases
Commonwealth of Massachusetts - 555 North King Street (at State Police)
Global Tower LLC through American Towers LLC 123 - Haydenville Road (on Smith Vocational
land)
Cell tower (name unknown) – King Street
104 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
14. Critical IT Equipment
The HMP Committee also made note of IT equipment housed in the following facilities that
would be critical to emergency operations:
DPW Water Treatment Plant - Mountain Street, Williamsburg
Puchalski Municipal Building - 212 Main Street
Emergency Communications Center - 26 Carlon Drive
Northampton High School - 380 Elm Street
DPW Administration Building - 125 Locust Street
Northampton IT Offices, James House - 42 Gothic Street
Of the critical emergency response facilities listed in Category 1, the following are known to be equipped
with back-up power generation capabilities to support at least partial facility operation during an outage
of the power grid.
Northampton High School
JFK Middle School
Northampton VA Medical Center
Cooley Dickinson Hospital
Smith College Campus School
Hampshire County House of Correction
Fire Department / Emergency
Operations Center
Northampton Police Department
Northampton Department of Public
Works
Municipal Building
Smith Vocational & Agricultural High
School
Smith College (multiple)
Wastewater Treatment Plant
Water Treatment Plant
Wastewater Treatment Plant Flood
Control System
Waste Water Pump Stations (7 – not all
have permanent back-up power, but all
are equipped with hookups to connect
to mobile generator)
Category 2 – Non Emergency Response Facilities
The City has identified these facilities as non-emergency facilities; however, they are considered
essential for the everyday operation of Northampton.
1. Water Supply
Francis P. Ryan Reservoir – Whately
West Whately Reservoir – Whately
Mountain Street Reservoir – Williamsburg
Supplemental water supplies are obtained from two wells in Florence, one off Spring Street and
another off Clark Street.
The three Roberts Meadow Reservoirs do not serve as emergency drinking water supply. They
may be suitable for very localized firefighting in an extreme emergency limited by reservoir
capacity and pressure head.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 105
2. Communications and Utilities
National Grid power sub-stations - West Street, King Street, and Florence Junction
Verizon Station – Masonic Street
3. Problem Culverts
A list of potential problem culverts is compiled by the Highway Superintendent and on file with
the Northampton DPW.
Category 3 – Facilities/Populations to Protect
The third category contains people and facilities that need to be protected in event of a disaster.
1. Medical Facilities
Cooley Dickinson Hospital – Elm Street
Hampshire County Dialysis Center – Conz Street
US Veterans (VA) Medical Center Hospital – North Main Street
2. Vulnerable Populations
Climate-vulnerable frontline populations – homeless, single room occupancy (SRO) and public
housing residents, and food insecure
Individuals without a reliable form of private transportation
Populations with functional needs/disabilities
Elderly – Significant population in Downtown Areas
Hampshire County Jail and House of Correction - Rocky Hill Road
Community Enterprises - Pleasant Street (job training, employment, case management,
education and housing support for people with disabilities)
3. Elderly Housing
Walter Salvo House – Conz Street
Frank J. Cahill – Fruit Street
Harold J. Forsander – High Street
Joan Tobin Manor – Maple Street
Joseph McDonald House – Old South Street
4. Nursing Homes / Assisted Living
Care One Nursing Home – Elm Street
Linda Manor / Zoe Life Retirement Community – Haydenville Road
Lathrop Retirement Community – South Street
Rockridge – North King
River Valley Rest Home – Pine Street
Christopher Heights – Hospital Hill
106 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
5. Schools
Bridge Street School – Bridge Street
Jackson Street School – Jackson Street
John F Kennedy Middle School - Bridge Road
Lander Grinspoon Academy - Prospect Street
Leeds School – Florence Street
Montessori School of Northampton - Bates Street
New Directions School (Cutchins Program) - Pomeroy Terrace
Northampton High School – Elm Street
(RK Finn) Ryan Road School – Ryan Road
Smith College – Elm Street
Smith College Campus School - Prospect Street
Smith Vocational and Agricultural High School – Locust Street
6. Houses of Worship
Blessed Sacrament Church – Elm St
College Church – Pomeroy Terrace
Congregation B’Nai Israel – Prospect Street
Edwards Church – Main Street
Christ Science Society – 4 Center Street
First Churches – 129 Main Street
Kingdom Hall – Jehovah’s Witness – Bridge Street
Northampton Friends Meeting 43 Center Street, 2nd Floor
St. Elizabeth Ann Seton – King Street
St. John’s Episcopal Church – Elm Street
Unitarian Society – Main Street
7. Historic Buildings/Sites
Academy of Music - 274 Main St
Calvin Coolidge House – Massasoit
Street
Dimmock Estate - Grove Hill Mansion -
Front St
First Congregational Church – Main
Street
Graves Avenue – 8—22 Graves Avenue
Hampshire County Court House –
Gothic Street
Hotel Northampton – King Street
Memorial Hall – Main Street
Northampton VA Medical Center –
North Main Street
Sylvester Graham House – Pleasant
Street
The Manse – Prospect Street
Unitarian Church – Main Street
West Farms Church – West Farms
Street
Elm Street Historic District
Fort Hill Historic District
Northampton Downtown Historic
District
Pomeroy Terrace Historic District23
23 Historic districts do not appear on the Critical
Facilities map
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 107
8. Employment Centers
Smith College – Elm Street
Cooley Dickinson Hospital – Elm Street
VA Medical Center – North Main Street
L-3 Harris – Prince Street/ State Route 66
Coca Cola – Industrial Drive
PCA Northampton – Mount Tom Road
Downtown — Routes 5 & 9
9. Mobile Home Parks
None in Northampton
10. Libraries
Forbes Library - 20 West Street
Lilly Library - 19 Meadow Street
Smith College Library – Elm Street
108 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 17. Critical Facilities and Evacuation Routes Potentially Affected by Hazard Areas
Hazard Type Hazard Area Critical Facilities Affected Evacuation Routes
Affected
Flooding
Mill River
Connecticut
River
Should the levee system fail, the entire downtown
would be flooded, including emergency operations
from the police station; Part of Leeds Village
Apartments senior housing is in flood zone; cell
towers of Atwood Drive and Bridge Street
Route 10 in extreme
conditions, Route 5;
Route 66/ Rocky Hill Road
at Ice Pond Road; Route
9.
Dam Failure/ Levee
Breach
Varies
depending on
structure
Site Specific Site Specific
Drought Entire City Firefighting operations None
Extreme
Temperatures Entire City None None
Wildfire/Brushfire
Spring Street
Ryan Rd.
Chesterfield Rd.
Site Specific Site Specific
Invasive Species Conservation
lands, forests
Potential for increased erosion, sedimentation,
heat islands, disease vectors and disease, loss of
street trees
None
Hurricane/ Tropical
Storm
Mill River
Connecticut
River
Should the levee system fail, much of downtown
would be flooded
Route 10 in extreme
conditions, Route 5;
Route 66; Route 9.
Severe Winter Storm/
Nor’easter Entire City
Cooley Dickinson-possible power outage
Nursing Homes-Rock Ridge
Route 10 in extreme
conditions, Route 5;
Route 66; Route 9.
Severe
Thunderstorms /
Wind / Tornadoes
Entire City Site Specific Site Specific
Earthquake Entire City
Emergency operations; residential and commercial
structures; emergency shelters; waste
management and treatment plants
Route 91 in extreme
conditions, Route 5;
Route 66; Route 9.
Pandemic Entire City
Staffing of certain critical facilities could be
impacted by reduced willingness of volunteers to
risk exposure.
None
(Critical Facilities Map Located In Appendix C)
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 109
5: MITIGATION STRATEGIES
One of the steps of this Hazard Mitigation Plan is to evaluate all of the City’s existing policies and
practices related to natural hazards and identify potential gaps in protection. After reviewing these
policies and the hazard identification and assessment, the Hazard Mitigation Committee developed a set
of hazard mitigation strategies it would like to have implemented moving forward.
The City of Northampton has developed the following goal to serve as a framework for mitigation of the
hazards identified in this plan. The goal addresses present-day concerns of local residents, business
owners, and officials in Northampton.
Goal Statement
To minimize injury and the loss of life, damage to property, and the disruption of governmental services
and general business activities due to the following hazards: flooding, severe winter storm/nor’easter,
severe thunderstorm/wind/tornado, hurricane/tropical storm, wildfire/brushfire, earthquake, dam
failure/levee breach, extreme temperature, invasive species, drought, and pandemic.
Existing Mitigation Strategies
The City of Northampton had many mitigation strategies in place prior to the update of this Hazard
Mitigation Plan in 2020. These strategies are included on the following pages and have been evaluated
in the “Effectiveness” column.
Strategies that were completed since the last version of the plan are listed in bold. For a list of
completed strategies that were previously identified as part of the prioritized implementation list, see
the table of “Deleted and Completed Strategies” later in this section.
Flooding
The key factors in flooding are the water capacity of water bodies and waterways, the regulation of
waterways by flood control structures, and the preservation of flood storage areas and wetlands. As
more land is developed, more flood storage is demanded of the City’s water bodies and waterways. The
City currently addresses this problem with a variety of mitigation tools and strategies. Flood-related
regulations and strategies are included in the City’s zoning ordinance, and subdivision regulations.
Infrastructure like dams and culverts are in place to manage the flow of water.
Management Plans
The Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) Plan for Northampton lists the following measures
for flood planning:
• Identify areas in the community that are flood prone and define methods to minimize the
risk. Review National Flood Insurance Maps.
110 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
• Disseminate emergency public information and instructions concerning flood preparedness
and safety.
• Community leaders should ensure that Northampton continues to be enrolled in the
National Flood Insurance Program.
• Strict adherence should be paid to land use and building codes, (e.g. Wetlands Protection
Act), and new construction should not be built in flood-prone areas.
• Ensure that flood control works are in good operating condition at all times.
• Natural water storage areas should be preserved.
• Maintain plans for managing all flood emergency response activities including addressing
potentially hazardous dams.
The Local Emergency Flood Plan for Northampton lists the following measures for flood planning that
require action at various Connecticut River and Mill River elevations when a flood event occurs. A
summary of actions include notifications to emergency dispatch, public works and closure of roads, etc.
No flood planning strategies are outlined in this document.
Subdivision Rules and Regulations
Northampton’s Subdivision Rules and Regulations govern the subdivision of land and were adopted for
the purpose of “protecting the safety, convenience and welfare of the inhabitants of Northampton by
regulating the laying out and construction of ways in subdivisions providing access to the several lots
there [and]…for securing safety in the case of fire, flood, panic, and other emergencies.” The
Subdivision Rules and Regulations contain several provisions that mitigate the potential for, and impact
of, flooding. The City’s subdivision regulations explicitly offer standards for residential development
seeking Low Impact Development (LID) option, in addition to requiring compliance to the Mass DEP
Stormwater Handbook.
There is a range of regulatory techniques available to prevent flood damage in Northampton. These
include:
• When a Definitive Plan is submitted, proponents must delineate natural waterways and
floodways.
• All Definitive Plans must comply with the Massachusetts’ Wetlands Protection Act (Chapter
131, Section 40) and Wetlands Protection Ordinance and retain all wetlands and flood lands.
• When permitting the subdivision, the planning board must ensure that the regulations of
the Water Supply Protection District are met, when the development is located within the
WSP. This works to retain flood and rainwater storage capacity in Northampton’s critical
waterways.
• Stormwater drainage and infiltration systems must be designed to withstand 1, 2, 10 and
100 year storms in Northampton.
• When a plan is developed and submitted to the Planning Board, all definitive plans must
indicate, clearly, any floodplain lands and demonstrate compliance with the City’s
Floodplain District.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 111
Northampton Zoning Ordinance
The City of Northampton has adopted several land use regulations that serve to limit or regulate
development in floodplains, to manage stormwater runoff, and to protect groundwater and wetland
resources, the latter of which often provide important flood storage capacity. To review the City of
Northampton’s Zoning Ordinance, visit www.northamptonma.gov/plan.
The City of Northampton has established a set of ordinances designed in part to “lessen congestion in
the streets; to conserve health; to secure safety from fire, flood, panic, and other dangers” The Zoning
Ordinance include several provisions that mitigate the potential for flooding, including:
• Any body of water or wet area that is proposed for filling and is proposed to receive 500
cubic yards of fill, or where the proposed area exceeds 10,000 s.f., must receive permission
from the Conservation Commission and must: a) not be located within the Special
Conservancy District, b) be executed within the context of existing plans, c) sufficiently
document the impacts on downstream locations, d) be designed not to impair surface
drainage or increase erosion, e) be designed to minimize off-site accumulation of fill
materials, f) must not impair any septic disposal systems, and g) no filling shall cause water
or other materials to intrude upon a neighboring property without the express permission of
the neighbor.
• The site plan review process shall: have all stormwater systems approved, floodplains and
water bodies must be delineated, an erosion control plan that prevents infill of water bodies
must be approved, not result in water damage to surrounding properties, not result in an
increase in surface water runoff from 1, 2 or 10 year storm events in the Central Business
District.
• The Special Conservancy Zoning District has been created in Northampton to maintain the
natural and safe flow of floodwaters, and to protect persons and property by ensuring that
development does not interfere with flood storage capacity. The District also prevents the
construction of residencies and the addition of fill; these preserve the natural hydrology of
the City’s watershed lands and provides storage areas for rain waters. Construction of new
residential development is prohibited in this district within the 500-year flood plain. The
500-year flood plain is used as an estimate for the increased precipitation predicted due to
climate change.
• The Farms, Forest and Rivers Overlay District (FFR) encourages the preservation of open
space and caps impervious surface area at 25 percent of the total lot size. The FFR works to
maintain open space and rainwater storage areas and, as such, makes the City less
susceptible to damage from flooding.
• The Water Supply Protection District prohibits the use of toxic chemicals and restricts the
excavation land within those lands that are critical to the City’s drinking water supplies. This
works to maintain natural hydrology.
• The Open Space Residential Development (OSRD) ordinance requires that 50 percent of a
new subdivision (when ordinance is used) be preserved as open space. This preserves open
space and can slow and store rain waters.
112 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Open Space Acquisition Program
The City purchases land area for open space either in fee or by agriculture and conservation restrictions.
A quarter of the City, including its only bog, is now protected land, with about 20 percent owned by the
City and the balance owned by state or federal government, or farmers or forest owners who have
agreed to property restrictions. This includes floodplain and flood prone areas. Specific actions involved
in the City’s Open Space Acquisition Program are identification of high-risk flooding areas, working with
land owners, and acquiring land in conjunction with land owners and state conservation programs.
River and Stream Protection
The City of Northampton follows the standards established by the Wetlands Protection Act, which
protects water bodies and wetlands through the city Conservation Commission. The City also has
instituted its Wetlands Ordinance and Special Conservancy District, an overlay district that provides
restrictions on use categories, the use of septic tanks and leach fields, as well as on the impacting of the
flood storage capacity of the land. The City also has a Water Supply Protection District, which prohibits
the use of septic tanks within the City’s aquifer protection district and creates greater buffer distances
from certain wetlands.
Stormwater Utility and Flood Control Ordinance
Passed by the City Council in 2014, the utility pays for necessary stormwater and flood control system
construction and maintenance. Property owners in Northampton are billed based on the amount of
stormwater runoff their land generates, with the calculation based on the amount of impervious and
pervious surface on site.
Public Education and Outreach
The City conducts outreach to homeowners’ associations to ensure they are maintaining culverts and
stormwater management areas and getting them replaced as needed. The City has been especially
active in working with the Ice Pond Neighborhood Association, whose detention pond caused significant
damage to a nearby road, the Tinkham Woods Neighborhood Association, whose restrictive covenants
and detention pond is 30 years old, and the Saw Mill Hills Neighborhood Association, who donated some
of the common land to the city for permanently protected open space and to ensure no new
development would occur there that would tax the stormwater system.
Code RED – City’s Reverse 911 Program
Residents can sign up to receive Reverse-911 Emergency Notifications via landline, cell, text and/or
email. City public safety officials send voice messages to thousands of residents and businesses within
minutes with specific information about emergencies and time-sensitive local community issues
including flooding, dam failure, extreme temperatures, wildfire, hurricanes and other natural disasters.
Code RED has worked well for the City for more than 5 years since the previous HMP. It is well utilized
by emergency management and can now target a defined area with specific messaging.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 113
National Flood Insurance Program
The National Flood Insurance Program has produced maps that identify floodways across America.
Northampton is a participating member of the National Flood Insurance Program, and had the following
NFIP policy and claim statistics as of 2020:
• Flood Insurance Maps (FIRMs) are used for flood insurance purposes and are on file with the
Northampton Planning Board.
• FIRMs have been effective since May 31, 1974 with the current map in effect since April 3,
1978.
• Northampton has 88 in-force policies in effect for a total of $22,468,900 worth of insurance.
• There have been a total of 61 NFIP claims for which $603,372 has been paid, the most
recent claim was made in 2011.
• As of 2018, there were 8 Repetitive Loss Properties in Northampton, all of which were
residential. Between these 8 properties, there have been 23 claims made between the years
1982 and 2011.
• The City will maintain compliance with the NFIP throughout the next 5-year Hazard
Mitigation Planning cycle by monitoring its Flood Plain Overlay District and ensuring that the
district accurately reflects the 100-year flood plain and FEMA Flood Insurance Rate Map
(FIRM).
The Flood Insurance Rate Maps in Hampshire County are scheduled to be updated by FEMA in the next
few years. When these maps are updated, the City of Northampton will adjust its zoning to
accommodate changes to the location of floodplains.
Community Rating System
Northampton currently participates in the National Flood Insurance Program’s Community Rating
System, a program based on incentivizing implementation of suggested floodplain management
activities for communities who wish to more thoroughly manage or reduce the impact of flooding in
their jurisdiction. Through use of the rating system (CRS rating), a community’s floodplain management
efforts can be evaluated for effectiveness. The rating, which indicates an above average floodplain
management effort, is then factored into the premium cost for flood insurance policies sold in the
community. The higher the rating achieved in that community, the greater the reduction in flood
insurance premium costs for local property owners. Northampton currently has a CRS Class 8 rating,
which confers up to a 20% discount on insurance premiums for NFIP policy holders in the City.
Flood Control Structures
FEMA has identified the following flood control structures in Northampton: Northampton Connecticut
and Mill River Flood Control Levees, constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The City regularly
maintains these levees, floodwalls and flood control pumping stations as per U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers requirements. See the Dam Failure/Levee Breach section for more detail.
114 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Capital Improvement Projects
The City routinely invests in capital improvement projects to minimize the impact of flooding. Since the
last plan, DPW completed a bank stabilization of the Roberts Meadow Brook, and repaired a Mill River
retaining wall near the Williamsburg Town line, among other projects.
Culvert Inventory and Prioritization
Northampton DPW began conducting culvert assessments in 2019 using the North Atlantic Aquatic
Connectivity (NAACC) assessment protocol for aquatic organism passage. Culverts were prioritized for
assessments based first on their location along a coldwater fishery (CWF), and second on perennial and
intermittent streams. When the NAACC Condition Assessment manual was released later that year,
DPW staff added condition assessments to their data collection process. Culverts for which sufficient
data had been collected were then evaluated for geomorphic compatibility using a rapid assessment
tool developed for the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. As of the writing of this plan in the
summer of 2020, most culverts on streams that are CWF have been assessed, and several of the culverts
on non-CWF streams have been assessed, but more than 50 culverts throughout the City have not been
evaluated.
Northampton Open Space, Recreation, and Multiuse Trail Plan 2018-2025
The Open Space, Recreation, and Multiuse Trail Plan inventories the City’s natural features and
promotes natural resource preservation in the City, including areas in the floodplain. Wetlands, aquifer
recharge areas, farms, open space, rivers, streams, and brooks are addressed in the plan, which
encourages forestland and farmland protection to help conserve the City’s flood storage capacity.
Northampton Climate Resilience & Regeneration Plan
Since the last update to this Hazard Mitigation Plan, the City drafted the 2019 Northampton Climate
Resilience and Regeneration Plan which will be incorporated into the City’s Master Plan, Sustainable
Northampton. The Northampton Climate Resilience & Regeneration Plan lays out a pathway for the City
to mitigate climate change, build capacity to anticipate, adapt, and thrive in a changing climate, and
reduce the City’s contribution to climate change. Many of these strategies include ways to plan for
increased climate events, like flooding.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 115
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Comprehensive
Emergency
Management Plan
The CEM Plan lists the following measures
for flood planning: Identify areas in the
community that are flood prone, review
National Flood Insurance Maps, disseminate
emergency public information and
instructions concerning flood preparedness
and safety, adhere to land use and building
codes, ensure that flood control works are
in good condition, and preservation of
natural are in good operating condition at
all times.
Entire City. Effective. None.
116 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Subdivision Rules
and Regulations
• Definitive plan requires
delineating natural waterways
and floodways.
• The subdivision regulations
must comply with zoning
protections for natural features.
• Subdivision drainage must be
designed to withstand 1, 2 10
and 100 year storms.
• Utilities must be buried.
• Stormwater management in
new development must be
designed so that post-
development peak discharge
rates do not exceed pre-
development peak discharge
rates.
• If LID subdivision, must be
compliant with DEP Stormwater
Handbook and additional
requirements.
Entire City.
Somewhat effective
for mitigating or
preventing localized
flooding of roads and
other infrastructure.
Somewhat effective
for controlling impacts
from stormwater
runoff.
Prevents flood
damage to
infrastructure.
Effective for
preventing increased
stormwater discharge.
None.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 117
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Zoning Ordinance:
Site Plan Review
Special
Conservancy
Floodplain Overlay
Farm, Forest and
Rivers Overlay
District
Water Supply
Protection District
Requires the site plan to show erosion
control, drainage facilities, stormwater
runoff, no net change to water supply.
Preserves the floodplain through preventing
new residential development in 500-year
flood plain. Planning Board and
Conservation Commission approval for
construction, while allowing conservation by
right. Commercial development is also
severely restricted.
Preserves and protects for various
commercial areas not protected by Special
Conservancy District.
Protects vulnerable, sensitive and important
ecosystems through requiring that all
construction be sited to minimize a project’s
footprint on the land; allows clustering and
sets a 25% maximum footprint for
infrastructure.
Preserves primary and secondary recharge
areas through preventing the use of
hazardous chemicals—either through strict
conditions or outright prohibitions.
Entire City.
Area
designated on
Zoning Map.
Area
designated on
Zoning Map.
Area
designated on
Zoning Map.
Area
designated on
Zoning Map.
Somewhat effective.
Effective.
Somewhat effective.
Somewhat effective.
Somewhat effective.
None.
118 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Open Space
Residential
Development
Ordinance
Allows development while conserving
valuable open space. Entire City.
Effective at
maintaining flood
storage land.
Consider adding more specific
impacts to address including
topographic change, removal of
cover vegetation, risk of erosion
or siltation and increased storm
water runoff.
Open Space
Acquisition
Program
The City is currently purchasing about 0.5
percent of the City’s land area either in fee
or by agriculture and conservation
restrictions. Specific actions involved in the
City’s Open Space Acquisition Program are
identification of high-risk flooding areas,
working with land owners, and acquiring
land in conjunction with land owners and
state conservation programs.
Areas within
the 100-year
Floodplain.
Effective. None.
Wetlands
Ordinance
Protects wetlands, including floodplains,
rivers and wetlands.
All wetlands
and
floodplains.
Effective at limiting
development that
would harm these
resources.
None.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 119
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Stormwater Utility
and Flood Control
Ordinance
Charges property owners for stormwater
runoff based on amount of impervious and
pervious surface on their land, in order to
pay for improvements to stormwater
system and flood control system.
Entire City. Effective. None.
Northampton
Open Space,
Recreation, and
Multiuse Trail
Plan 2018 – 2025
Inventories natural features and promotes
natural resource preservation in the City,
including areas in the floodplain; such as
wetlands, aquifer recharge areas, farms
and open space, rivers, streams and
brooks.
Entire City
Effective in identifying
sensitive resource
areas, including
floodplains.
Encourages forestland
and farmland
protection, which will
help conserve the
City’s flood storage
capacity.
Consider implementing the
Seven-Year Action Plan
strategies, particularly those
dealing with protection of
forests, farmland and floodplain
forests.
Participation in
the National Flood
Insurance
Program
As of 2020, there were 88 homeowners with
flood insurance policies.
Areas
identified by
the FEMA
maps.
Somewhat effective,
provided that the City
remains enrolled in
the National Flood
Insurance Program.
The City should consider re-
applying for Community Rating
System status and continue to
work with MEMA regarding flood
mitigation requirements.
120 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Participate in NFIP
Community Rating
System (CRS)
As of 2020, the City holds a Class 8 rating,
which confers up to a 20% discount on
insurance premiums for NFIP policy holders
in the City.
Entire City
Effective in reducing
insurance premiums
for NFIP policy
holders.
A new Class 8 prerequisite will
require communities to adopt
and enforce at least a 1-foot
freeboard requirement for all
residential buildings
constructed, substantially
improved, and/or reconstructed
due to substantial damage,
throughout its Special Flood
Hazard Area (SFHA) where base
flood elevations have been
determined. This requirement
may limit the feasibility of the
City maintaining its Class 8
rating.
FEMA Risk
Mapping
Assessment &
Planning
Discovery Report 01 inventoried local flood
hazard and risks with help from City. Next
phase of study includes study of riverine
zones A and AE within Connecticut
Watershed. Updates FIRMs.
Entire City. Effective.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 121
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Climate Resilience
& Regeneration
Plan
A component of the 2020 Update to
Sustainable Northampton addressing
climate adaptation and mitigation to make
the City more resilient and regenerative.
Provides for design standards and
exploration of policies raising requirements
for new design storm intensities and rainfall
distributions, closed drainage systems, and
increasing stormwater conveyance capacity
through blue-green-gray infrastructure.
Entire City
Somewhat Effective,
as the City will
eventually include the
document in their
2020 Master Plan
Update
The City is currently on its way to
adopting the plan and exploring
implementation.
Maintenance of
Northampton
Connecticut and
Mill River Flood
Control Levees
The City regularly maintains the flood
control levees along the Connecticut and
Mill Rivers, as required by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers. The City is currently
completing studies to assess necessary
improvements to this infrastructure to keep
it in good maintenance.
Mill River and
Connecticut
River flood
plains
Effective.
Improvements to flood control
structures (see list of future
strategies)
Maintenance of
channel behind
Fire Department
Department of Public Works maintains the
channel behind the Fire Department to
prevent the marsh from flooding the Fire
Department building.
Fire
Department
and nearby
marsh.
Effective. None.
122 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Hampshire County
Shelter System
Concept of
Operations
Shelter System Concept of Operations
outlines process of which a shelter would
open in Northampton based on flooding or
other natural disaster. Smith Vocational HS
is identified as a Primary and Animal Facility
and JFK Middle School as a Secondary
Facility. Smith has limited generator
capacity.
Entire City. Somewhat effective.
CodeRED –
Reverse 911
System
Emergency Management can target
messaging to certain areas or the entire city
to inform of emergencies and time-sensitive
community issues, like flooding.
Entire City. Effective. None.
Bank stabilization
of the Roberts
Meadow Brook
A channel section immediately
downstream of the Lower Roberts
Meadow Reservoir Dam was historically
constructed at a steep slope, resulting in
significant bank erosion and channel
meander over time, threatening bank
stability and adjacent property.
Reconstruction included bank stabilization
and channel step pools to provide fish
habitat and maintain channel stability.
Flooding
DPW with funding
from FEMA’s Hazard
Mitigation Grant
Program
Completed
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 123
Table 18. Existing Flood Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Repair of Mill
River Retaining
Wall
A retaining wall along the Mill River near
the Williamsburg Town line was poorly
constructed and deterioration over time
threatened flooding of the adjacent
roadway and the integrity of the main
sewer interceptor from Williamsburg to the
Northampton WWTP. The new concrete
retaining wall mitigated these threats.
Mill River near
the
Williamsburg
Town line
Completed
124 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Dam Failure / Levee Breach
Dam or levee failure is a highly infrequent occurrence, but a severe incident could prove catastrophic. In
addition, dam failure most often coincides with flooding, so its impacts can be multiplied, as the
additional water has nowhere to flow.
Management Plans and Regulatory Measures
The Northampton Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) Plan contains the following
mitigation measures for dam failure:
• Develop and conduct public education programs concerning dam hazards.
• Maintain up-to-date plans to deal with threat and actual occurrence of dam over-spill or
failure.
• Emergency Management and other local government agencies should familiarize
themselves with technical data and other information pertinent to the dams which impact
Northampton. This should include determining the probable extent and seriousness of the
effect to downstream areas.
• Dams should be inspected periodically and monitored regularly.
• Repairs should be attended to promptly.
• As much as is possible burdens on faulty dams should be lessened through stream re-
channeling.
• Identify dam owners.
• Determine minimum notification time for downstream areas.
• Contaminate-laden waste (including dams that hold back pollution from traveling
downstream).
Permits Required for New Dam Construction
Massachusetts State Law (M.G.L. Chapter 253 Section 45) regulates the construction of new dams. A
permit must be obtained from the Department of Conservation and Recreation (DCR) before
construction can begin. One of the permit requirements is that all local approvals or permits must be
obtained. All new dams must adhere to seismic requirements set forth in the 8th Edition of the
Massachusetts State Building Code.
Dam Inspections and Removal of Dams
The DCR requires that dams rated as Low Hazards are inspected every ten years and dams that are rated
as Medium/Significant Hazards are inspected every five years. High Hazard dams must be inspected
every two years. Of the three City-owned dams in Northampton, both Middle and Lower Roberts dams
are designated as high hazard dams, and the South Street dam is medium hazard. The City dams are in
good shape according to the DPW. However, data from private dam inspection is lacking.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 125
Zoning
There is no mention made regarding the construction of new dams in Northampton.
Restrictions on Development
There are no City restrictions on dam locations. The DCR issues permits for new dams and does have
the authority to deny a permit if it is determined that the design and/or location of the dam is not
acceptable.
Levee Maintenance
The City regularly maintains the levee systems on the Mill River and Connecticut River in accordance
with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers requirements to ensure the flood control system is in good repair.
It should be noted that vegetation management is usually a routine maintenance activity, however, the
DPW identified that major vegetation management to maintain its levees included a significant amount
of tree and wood growth removal where woody growth should not be present. The DPW is now more
responsive to vegetation management after a period of time of deferred maintenance. Some other
related repairs due to the deferred maintenance include floodwall concrete repair, raising the earthen
levees in several areas, and other minor repairs to the both the Connecticut River and Mill River
systems.
FEMA Levee Accreditation
Years after the current Northampton FIRM mapping was completed, FEMA promulgated a requirement
that flood control systems be accredited in accordance with certain engineering evaluations that
demonstrate adequate protection for the 1% probability flood event. Northampton’s levees have never
been accredited by FEMA, and without that accreditation the map modernization process would likely
consider the area behind the levees as floodplain.
In 2018, the City initiated an engineering evaluation of its levees and flood control system to establish
capital improvement priorities and prepare documentation to submit to FEMA for accreditation of the
system in advance of map modernization.
Proactively, the City will be undertaking pre-disaster “brick and mortar” mitigation construction projects
that are needed to advance the levee accreditation process. Projects for Levee Toe Drain Maintenance
and Hockanum Flood Pumping Station Phase 1 Upgrades work have been funded and are going to bid in
2020. These projects are mainly paid for through the existing City stormwater enterprise fund, which is
capped at $2 million per year. However, this stormwater enterprise fund supports personnel and routine
maintenance as well as drainage capital projects and is not enough for all the capital projects that may
be needed going forward for FEMA accreditation. Other funding sources are being explored for capital
projects that may be needed to receive FEMA accreditation. The City has prioritized implementing
recommendations from the engineering evaluations that would support a successful submission for
FEMA accreditation.
126 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 19. Existing Dam Failure and Levee Breach Hazard Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Comprehensive
Emergency
Management Plan
The CEM Plan includes a variety
of public education and regular
maintenance initiatives for dam
and levee safety.
Entire City. Effective. None.
Permits required for
new dam
construction
State law requires a permit for
the construction of any dam. Entire City. Effective. Ensures dams are
adequately designed. None.
Dam Inspections
DCR has an inspection schedule
that is based on the hazard
rating of the dam (low, medium,
high hazard).
Entire City.
Dams located on private land
must be inspected by property
owner. The City’s Conservation
Commission is responsible for
inspecting two City-owned
dams and DPW for three City-
owned dams.
None.
Evacuation Plans
Comprehensive evacuation
plans ensure the safety of the
citizens in the event of dam
failure.
Inundation
areas in
City.
Effective. None.
Identification of
inundation zones
Mapped inundation zones
identify areas where dam
breaches would result in a loss
of life and damage to property.
Inundation
areas in
City.
Effective. None.
Emergency Action
Plans
EAPs are in place for the two
Roberts Meadows dams, which
Inundation
areas in Effective. None.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 127
Table 19. Existing Dam Failure and Levee Breach Hazard Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
includes identification of City
inundation areas
City.
Local Emergency Flood
Plan
Plan lists measures that require
action at various Connecticut
River and Mill River elevations
when a flood event occurs.
Inundation
areas in
City.
Effective. None.
Levee maintenance
The City regularly maintains the
levee systems on the Mill River
and Connecticut River in
accordance with the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers requirements
to ensure the flood control
system is in good repair.
Inundation
areas in
City.
Effective. None.
Remove unnecessary
dams and other
manmade structures
where feasible:
1. Upper Roberts
Dam removal
2. Fitzgerald Lake
Dam Repair
1. The City removed the Upper
Roberts Reservoir Dam in 2018.
2. DPW repaired the Fitzgerald
Lake Dam after determining
that the dam presented a low
enough hazard that it did not
need to be removed.
Dam failure 1. DPW with funding from the
Executive Office of Energy and
Environmental Affairs
2. EEA Dam Safety Grant, City
Capital Improvement Program
Completed/Discontinued
Remaining dams on the Mill River
are under private ownership and
therefore not priority projects for
the City.
CodeRED – Reverse
911 System
Emergency Management can
target messaging to certain
areas or the entire city to inform
of emergencies and time-
sensitive community issues, like
dam failure.
Entire City. Effective. None.
128 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Drought
Although Massachusetts does not face extreme droughts like many other places in the country, it is
susceptible to dry spells and drought. Drought can most likely be effectively mitigated in regions like the
Pioneer Valley if measures are put into place, such as ensuring that groundwater is recharged.
State Regulations
The City of Northampton follows the state’s Water Management Act, which limits the amount of water
consumption during a state-issued Water Emergency Declaration. For more information visit:
www.mass.gov/eea/agencies/massdep/water/drinking/the-massachusetts-water-management-act-
program.html.
City Operations
The City of Northampton routinely works to identify and repair water system leaks. Current water loss
due to leakage is less than 10 percent of the total consumption. In addition, the City installed irrigation
well at Florence Field, and is also working with Smith College to determine the feasibility of irrigation
wells on campus, which would further conserve the City’s water supply.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 129
Table 20. Existing Drought Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Massachusetts Water
Management Act
Regulates amount of water that
can be used during a Water
Emergency Declaration.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
Identification and
reduction of water system
leaks
The Department of Public Works
routinely inspects and repairs
water system leaks.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
Water System Emergency
Response Plan
Plan includes information about
what City will do in response to
water emergencies, including
droughts.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
130 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Extreme Temperatures
A Continuity of Operations Plan outlines City government’s functions and responsibilities in a natural
disaster, which includes extreme temperatures, and relocation of services during these declared
disasters.
Zoning Ordinance
In 2016, the City adopted a Zoning Ordinance (§350-12.3 Significant Trees) requiring that projects that
meet site plan approval thresholds must replace any trees that are cut which are deemed “significant”,
which is any tree of 20 inches diameter breast height (DBH) or larger or any other tree specifically
identified as a specimen tree on any Tree Inventory Plan adopted by the Planning Board.
Northampton Community & Resilience Hub
A Community & Resilience Hub is being explored as an effort to support Northampton residents who
face chronic and acute stress due to natural and human-caused disasters, climate change, and social and
economic challenges. This Hub is proposed to coordinate the distribution of various resources and
services during normal times to more challenged populations through partnership with local service
providers, public private partnerships, etc.; however, during major disruptions like a future disaster or
pandemic, the Hub would provide the service and resource distribution citywide to all residents as now
the Hub would play a role in the planning of preparing and responding to disaster. The Community &
Resilience Hub would also potentially serve as a cooling and warming shelter in the case of extreme
temperatures.
City Resilience Projects
In 2019, the Public Shade Tree Commission adopted a planting plan and planting list based on tree
species that would be able to accommodate climate change and invasive species pressure. The Public
Shade Tree Commission works in collaboration with the City Tree Warden and a private citizens’ group,
Tree Northampton. Together they promote ecological stewardship, volunteering to support
Northampton’s tree program by caring and planting trees all over the City.
In addition to the tree planting plan and revised planting list, the City continues to participate in resilient
activities, such as replanting and reforesting an 80 acre golf course with money from the Significant Tree
Fund and MVP grant. Additional tree planting projects for resilience include at Connecticut River Park,
where Northampton Community Rowing serves as a partner in doing ongoing watering of newly planted
trees.
Overall, the City budget for tree purchase and installation has increased in the past few years.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 131
Table 21. Existing Extreme Temperatures Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Relocation of
public safety
operations
The Police and Fire
Departments have a
relocation plan in the
case of an emergency
Entire
City Effective None.
Zoning Ordinance
The City adopted a
significant tree zoning
ordinance in 2016
Entire
City Effective None.
CodeRED –
Reverse 911
System
Emergency
Management can
target messaging to
certain areas or the
entire city to inform of
emergencies and
time-sensitive
community issues, like
extreme
temperatures.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
132 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Wildfires/Brushfires
Wildfire and brushfire mitigation strategies involve educating people about how to prevent fires from
starting, as well as controlling burns within the City.
Management Plans
The Northampton Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan does not include any specific
information on wildfires.
Regulatory Measures
Burn Permits: The City of Northampton does allow open burning under the guidelines of the
Department of Environmental Protection. Open Burning is authorized from January 15 to May 1. Burning
is permitted between the hours of 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. The Officer in Charge of the Fire Department will
determine if burning will be allowed at the beginning of the shift and can suspend burning if weather
conditions change.
Subdivision Review: The procedures for the submission of preliminary and definitive subdivision plans
require that the fire department be an active participant in the review of proposed subdivision plans.
This involves verifying that proficient water supplies exist and that access routes to and from a given
subdivision adequately meet public safety needs.
Public Education/Outreach: The Northampton Fire Department maintains a public outreach program
that targets children and seniors with the intention of spreading information about fire safety within
these two populations. Furthermore, the City has a safety inspection program that works to ensure that
fire safety standards are being met.
Restrictions on Development
There are currently no restrictions on development that are based on the need to mitigate the hazards
of wildfires and brushfires.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 133
Table 22. Existing Wildfire/Brushfire Hazard Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Burn Permits
Residents are permitted to obtain burn
permits over the phone. State police
personnel provide information on safe
burn practices.
Entire City. Effective. None.
Subdivision Review:
Fire Safety
The Fire Department is involved in the
review of subdivision plans.
The City of Northampton has extensive
public water supplies and all residents
are within the City’s fire prevention
operations.
Regulations allow lower water flows
above certain elevations for sprinkler
systems and water storage in houses
that are not connected to city water
lines.
Entire City.
Effective.
Would be effective in
providing for an increase in
fire suppression capacity.
Effective.
None.
Public Education/Outreach The Fire Department has an ongoing
educational program in the schools. Entire City. Effective. None.
134 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Invasive Species
The spread of invasive species is a serious concern as species ranges shift with a changing climate.
People can also carry invasive plant species on their clothing if walking through trails that may be
present in soils.
Management Plans
The Open Space, Recreation & Multi-use Trails Plan offers a strategy of using volunteers to remove
invasive species when exotics and non-native plants compete with local plants and degrade animal life.
In 2012-2013, DCR approved Forest Management Plans for watershed forests in Northampton that
identified invasive species as a threat to forest regeneration and overall forest health. Those plans
provide a roadmap for future efforts to control invasive plant populations in the watershed to reduce
the amount of forest cover lost to invasive plants. Among other things, the plans recommended
managing invasives (bittersweet, etc.) to ensure a resilient forest that continues to provide a sustained
supply of high quality water.
Regulatory Measures
Plants and trees invasive to Massachusetts are not allowed in the Highway Business Zone, per the
Zoning Ordinance. Additionally, replacement trees shall be noninvasive deciduous or coniferous trees
(as defined by the City's Tree List and Planting Guidelines) planted on or off site, as approved as part of a
site plan or administrative site plan, or on any City-owned property with approval by the Office of
Planning and Sustainability. The City Planning and Sustainability Department supports the Boards that
oversee many of the regulatory requirements of tree planting, like requirements in site plan approval,
subdivision regulation, or zoning relief.
Table 23. Existing Invasive Species Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Open Space,
Recreation &
Multi-Use Trails
Plan
Invasive plant species
removal via volunteer
and City collaboration
Entire
City Effective None
Zoning Ordinance
Requirement of non-
invasive trees to be
planted in HB Zoning
District
Replacement trees
shall not be
noninvasive
deciduous or
HB
Zoning
District
Entire
City
Effective
Effective
None
None
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 135
Table 23. Existing Invasive Species Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
coniferous trees as
defined by the City’s
Tree List.
Subdivision
Regulations
Definitive Plan
requirement for a tree
inventory identifying
significant groups of
trees or any tree over
12 inches in diameter,
including species
Standards for planting
include a tree list for
shade trees within a
subdivision
Entire
City Effective None
Hurricane / Tropical Storm AND Severe Thunderstorm / Wind / Tornado
Hurricanes, severe thunderstorms, and tornadoes all generate high winds that can fell trees, down
electrical wires, and generate hurtling debris. This common characteristic means that the same set of
mitigation strategies applies equally to all four hazards. For example, current land development
regulations, such as restrictions on the height of telecommunications towers, can help prevent wind
damages from all four types of hazards. In addition to wind damage, hurricanes can generate significant
flooding that damages buildings, infrastructure and threatens human lives. All of the existing mitigation
measures listed in the Flooding section are also hurricane mitigation measures.
Management Plans
The Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) Plan for Northampton includes the following
mitigation measures for hurricanes, severe thunderstorms, wind, and tornadoes:
• Develop and enforce building codes to enhance structural resistance to high winds.
• Develop and disseminate emergency public information and instructions concerning disaster
safety, especially guidance regarding in-home protection and evacuation procedures, and
locations of public shelters.
136 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Zoning
The Telecommunications Facilities Zoning Ordinance requires that telecommunications towers be
setback from adjacent property lines. This requirement prevents telecommunications facilities and ice
on those facilities from falling and damaging neighboring properties.
Restrictions on Development
The City’s Subdivision Ordinance requires that all new subdivisions have buried utility lines.
Mobile Homes
According to the Northampton Zoning Ordinance, mobile homes are not an allowed use. However, all
regulations and legal protections given to victims of fires or other natural disasters must be followed,
and such regulations are located in M.G.L. Chapter 40A.
State Building Code
For new or recently built structures, the primary protection against wind-related damage is construction
that adheres to the State Building Code, which, when followed, results in buildings that withstand high
winds. The City of Northampton employs a building inspector for all inspection duties and
responsibilities.
Flood Mitigation Strategies
Because one of the primary impacts of hurricanes and severe thunderstorms is intense rainfall that
generates flooding, all of the flood mitigation strategies discussed above are also mitigation strategies
for hurricanes and severe thunderstorms.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 137
Table 24. Existing Hurricane / Tropical Storm / Severe Thunderstorm / Wind / Tornado Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Comprehensive
Emergency
Management Plan
The CEM includes the following
mitigation measures: 1) Develop and
enforce building codes to enhance
structural resistance to high winds
and 2) develop and disseminate
emergency public information and
instructions concerning disaster
safety, especially guidance regarding
in-home protection and evacuation
procedures, and locations of public
shelters.
Entire City. Effective. None.
Zoning regulations
for tele-
communications
facilities
No facility shall exceed 220 feet in
height as measured from the mean
finished grade at facility base.
No tower, exclusive of any
attachments, shall be erected
nearer to any property line than a
distance equal to twice the vertical
height.
Entire City. Effective. Consider adding safety and prevention of
wind-related damage as a stated purpose.
138 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 24. Existing Hurricane / Tropical Storm / Severe Thunderstorm / Wind / Tornado Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Subdivision
Regulations – Utilities
(electric and
telephone)
The City requires all utilities for new
subdivisions to be underground. Entire City.
Somewhat effective
for ensuring that
utility service is
uninterrupted by
severe storms in new
areas of residential
development.
Work with utility companies to underground
new utility lines in general and existing
utility lines in locations where repetitive
outages occur.
Zoning Regulations
regarding new
mobile homes
Mobile homes are not an allowed
use in all districts. Entire City.
Does not address the
potential for wind-
related damage to
mobile homes.
None.
State Building Code
The City of Northampton has
adopted the Massachusetts State
Building Code.
Entire City. Effective. None.
CodeRED – Reverse
911 System
Emergency Management can target
messaging to certain areas or the
entire city to inform of emergencies
and time-sensitive community
issues, like hurricanes and severe
weather events.
Entire City. Effective. None.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 139
Severe Winter Storm / Nor’easter
Winter storms can be especially challenging for emergency management personnel. The Massachusetts
Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) serves as the primary coordinating entity in the statewide
management of all types of winter storms and monitors the National Weather Service (NWS) alerting
systems during periods when winter storms are expected. Even though the storm has usually been
forecast, there is no certain way for predicting its length, size or severity. Therefore, mitigation
strategies must focus on preparedness prior to a severe snow/ice storm.
The City’s current mitigation tools and strategies focus on preparedness, with many regulations and
standards established based on safety during storm events. To the extent that some of the damages
from a winter storm can be caused by flooding, flood protection mitigation measures also assist with
severe snowstorms and ice storms.
Management Plans
The Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) Plan for Northampton lists the following mitigation
measure for severe winter storms:
• Develop and disseminate emergency public information concerning winter storms,
especially material which instructs individuals and families how to stock their homes,
prepare their vehicles, and take care of themselves during a severe winter storm.
To the extent that some of the damages from a winter storm can be caused by flooding, all of the flood
protection mitigation measures undertaken by the City can also be considered as mitigation measures
for severe snowstorms/ice storms.
Restrictions on Development
There are no restrictions on development that are directly related to severe winter storms. However,
the Subdivision Rules and Regulations do set grade limits on driveways and address frontage variances
for flag lots to ensure that roads and driveways will be passable in the winter.
The City of Northampton Subdivision Rules and Regulations set grade limits on streets that are included
in Section 7:01: Streets and Ways and as part of Section 7:22: Underground Utility Systems, which,
although not specified as weather hazard mitigation, can serve to minimize accident potential and
power loss from severe winter storms. The City of Northampton Zoning Ordinance also regulates
common driveways.
State Building Code
For new or recently built structures, the primary protection against snow-related damage is construction
according to the State Building Code, which addresses designing buildings to withstand snow loads.
Northampton has a full-time, professional building inspector on its staff.
140 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Improvements to Backup Power Supply
The City continues working to improve the electrical resiliency of its emergency facilities, in case of
power loss from hazards such as snowstorms. As part of this work, the City commissioned a study by
Rivermoor Systems to make recommendations for improvements, such as adapting current buildings to
backup power generators and photovoltaic facilities. The City is also working to improve the resiliency of
the energy grid that serves emergency services and critical facilities.
In the draft Climate Resilience & Regeneration Plan to be included in the update to the City’s Master
Plan, the City is seeking a pathway to retrofit, upgrade and require new constructions of buildings and
energy systems that can better withstand floods, heat waves, or extreme storms. Some
recommendations include the development of microgrids and distributed energy systems with battery
storage, particularly to power emergency services, providing backup power if the grid fails.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 141
Table 25. Existing Severe Winter Storm / Nor’easter Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Comprehensive Emergency
Management Plan
The CEM Plan lists the following
mitigation measure for severe
winter storms: Develop and
disseminate emergency public
information concerning winter
storms, especially material which
instructs individuals and families
how to stock their homes,
prepare their vehicles, and take
care of themselves during a
severe winter storm.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
Subdivision Regulations –
Design Standards for Roads
Standards for Flag Lots
Standards include street grade
regulations (five to eight percent
maximum).
Requires that snow management
strategy be a clear part of the
conditions to permit a flag lot.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
Subdivision Regulations –
Utilities (electric and
telephone)
The City requires all utilities for
new subdivisions to be
underground.
Entire
City.
Somewhat effective
for ensuring that
utility service is
uninterrupted by
severe storms in new
areas of residential
development.
Work with utility companies to underground
existing utility lines in locations where
repetitive outages occur.
142 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 25. Existing Severe Winter Storm / Nor’easter Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
State Building Code
Northampton follows the
Massachusetts State Building
Code.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
Resiliency of electrical grid
Implementing improvements to
electrical systems of emergency
facilities.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
Electrical grid for
emergency services
Working to ensure resiliency of
microgrid for emergency service
facilities, and reviewing Smith
College as a model.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
Stretch Energy Code
The City adopted the Stretch
Energy Code which is more
aggressive than base code,
allowing for buildings to achieve
more energy savings and increase
their passive survivability.
Entire
City Effective None.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 143
Earthquake
Although there are five mapped seismological faults in Massachusetts, there is no discernible pattern of
previous earthquakes along these faults nor is there a reliable way to predict future earthquakes along
these faults or in any other areas of the state. Consequently, earthquakes are arguably the most
difficult natural hazard for which to plan.
Most buildings and structures in the state were constructed without specific earthquake resistant design
features. In addition, earthquakes precipitate several potential devastating secondary effects such as
building collapse, utility pipeline rupture, water contamination, and extended power outages.
Therefore, many of the mitigation efforts for other natural hazards identified in this plan may be
applicable during the City’s recovery from an earthquake.
Management Plans
The Northampton Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan lists the following mitigation measures
for earthquakes:
• Community leaders in cooperation with Emergency Management Personnel maintain an
assessment of structures and land areas that are especially vulnerable to earthquake.
• Strict adherence should be paid to land use and earthquake resistant building codes for all
new construction.
• Periodic evaluation, repair, and/or improvement should be made to older public structures.
• Emergency earthquake public information and instructions should be developed and
disseminated.
State Building Code
State and local building inspectors are guided by regulations put forth in the Massachusetts State
Building Code. The first edition of the Massachusetts State Building Code went into effect on January 1,
1975 and included specific earthquake resistant design standards. These seismic requirements for new
construction have been revised and updated over the years and are part of the current, 8th edition of
the Massachusetts State Building Code. Given that most structures in Massachusetts were built before
1975, many buildings and structures do not have specific earthquake resistant design features. In
addition, built areas underlain by artificial fill, sandy or clay soils are particularly vulnerable to damage
during an earthquake.
The City has since adopted the stretch code as it became a Green Community.
Restrictions on Development
There are no seismic-related restrictions on development beyond that in the building code.
144 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 26. Existing Earthquake Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Comprehensive
Emergency
Management Plan
The CEM Plan includes
measures for
earthquake
preparation that
include keeping an
assessment of
structures and land
areas that are
especially vulnerable
to earthquakes, strict
adherence to building
code, periodic
evaluation, repair,
and/or improvement
to older public
structures, and
dissemination of
public information
about how to prepare
for earthquakes.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
State Building
Code
The City of
Northampton has
adopted the 9th
Edition of the State
Building Code.
Entire
City.
Effective for
new buildings
only.
Evaluate older structures to be
used as shelters and
determine if they are
earthquake resistant as per
9th Edition of the State
Building Code.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 145
Pandemic
The Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) Plan for Northampton includes the following
mitigation measures for pandemics:
• Develop and disseminate emergency public information and instructions concerning
personal health, hygiene, and sanitation.
• Developing epidemic intelligence, evaluation, prevention and detection of communicable
diseases and disease control operations.
• Collection of vital statistics.
Northampton Resilience Hub
A Resilience Hub is being explored as an effort to support Northampton residents who face chronic and
acute stress due to natural and human-caused disasters, climate change, and social and economic
challenges. It will serve the 1% (homeless and others under the most severe chronic stress), the 15%
(below the poverty line), the 40% (housing-burdened and under chronic stress) and the 100% (those at
risk of acute, but not regular, adverse events), by providing access to resource, developing a network of
neighbors, and building social resilience. This Hub is proposed to coordinate the distribution of various
resources and services during normal times to more challenged populations through partnership with
local service providers, public private partnerships, etc.; however, during major disruptions like a future
disaster or pandemic, the Hub would provide the service and resource distribution citywide to all
residents as now the Hub would play a role in the planning of preparing and responding to disaster.
Table 27. Existing Pandemic Mitigation Measures
Existing Action Description Area
Covered Effectiveness Potential Changes
Comprehensive
Emergency
Management Plan
The CEM Plan includes
measures for
pandemics that
include development
and dissemination of
public information
regarding personal
health and hygiene,
developing epidemic
intelligence and
disease control
operations, and
collecting vital
statistics.
Entire
City. Effective. None.
146 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Discontinued or Completed Mitigation Strategies
Several mitigation strategies listed in the 2015 version of the Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan have been removed or completed in the time
since this 5-year update. Deleted and completed strategies, and their status, are indicated in the table below. Mitigation strategies from the
2015 plan that were partially complete and are ongoing are presented with detailed status reports in the following section.
Table 28. Discontinnued or Completed Mitigation Strategies
Action Name Description Hazards
Mitigated Responsible Agency Status
Remove
unnecessary dams
and other manmade
structures where
feasible:
1. Upper Roberts
Dam removal
2. Fitzgerald Lake
Dam Repair
1. The Upper Roberts Meadow Reservoir Dam
was a High Hazard dam that the Office of Dam
Safety (ODS) ordered the City to remove or
repair. The dam was removed in 2018,
eliminating the risk of dam failure and
associated downstream flooding, and restoring
the channel for unobstructed fish passage and
natural flow.
2. DPW repaired the Fitzgerald Lake Dam after
determining that the dam presented a low
enough hazard that it did not need to be
removed
Dam
failure
1. DPW with funding
from the Executive
Office of Energy and
Environmental Affairs
2. Capital Budget
Completed
Bank stabilization of
the Roberts
Meadow Brook
The City stabilized the banks of Robert
Meadows Brook Flooding
DPW with funding
from FEMA’s Hazard
Mitigation Grant
Program
Completed
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 147
Table 28. Discontinnued or Completed Mitigation Strategies
Action Name Description Hazards
Mitigated Responsible Agency Status
Repair of Mill River
Retaining Wall
A retaining wall along the Mill River near the
Williamsburg Town line was poorly constructed
and deterioration over time threatened
flooding of the adjacent roadway and the
integrity of the main sewer interceptor from
Williamsburg to the Northampton WWTP. The
new concrete retaining wall mitigated these
threats.
Flooding
DPW with funding
from FEMA’s Hazard
Mitigation Grant
Program
Completed
Upgrade flood
control system to
replace wooden
stop logs with
aluminum stop logs.
The DPW has reviewed quotes for current
pricing to replace the wooden stop logs with
aluminum stop logs for the West Street closure
structure and determined that current costs are
prohibitive for the benefit gained.
N/A N/A
Discontinued. The wooden stop
logs for the Route 5 and railroad
stop logs were replaced with high
quality, grade-stamped timbers
and the stop log storage
structures were reconstructed.
148 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Prioritized Implementation Plan
Several of the action items previously identified in the 2015 Hazard Mitigation Plan are currently
continuing, either because they require more time to secure funding or their construction process is
ongoing. In addition, the Hazard Mitigation Committee identified several new strategies that are also
being pursued. These new strategies are based on experience with currently implemented strategies, as
well as the hazard identification and risk assessment in this plan. Overall mitigation strategy priorities
have not changed since the last version of this plan, with specific mitigation strategies addressing all
identified hazards through a combination of planning, public outreach, and infrastructure
improvements.
Prioritization Methodology
The Northampton Hazard Mitigation Planning Committee reviewed and prioritized a list of previously
identified and new mitigation strategies using the following criteria:
Application to multiple hazards – Strategies are given a higher priority if they assist in the mitigation of
several natural hazards.
Time required for completion – Projects that are faster to implement, either due to the nature of the
permitting process or other regulatory procedures, or because of the time it takes to secure funding, are
given higher priority.
Estimated benefit – Strategies which would provide the highest degree of reduction in loss of property
and life are given a higher priority. This estimate is based on the Hazard Identification and Analysis
Chapter, particularly with regard to how much of each hazard’s impact would be mitigated.
Cost effectiveness – in order to maximize the effect of mitigation efforts using limited funds, priority is
given to strategies low-cost that would require low-cost investments by the CIty. For example, regular
tree maintenance is a relatively low-cost operational strategy that can significantly reduce the length of
time of power outages during a winter storm. Strategies that have identified potential funding streams,
such as the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, that would off-set the cost of an expensive project are
also given higher priority.
Eligibility Under Hazard Mitigation Grant Program – The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP)
provides grants to states and local governments to implement long-term hazard mitigation measures
after a major disaster declaration. The purpose of the HMGP is to reduce the loss of life and property
due to natural disasters and to enable mitigation measures to be implemented during the immediate
recovery from a disaster. Funding is made available through FEMA by the Massachusetts Emergency
Management Agency. Municipalities apply for grants to fund specific mitigation projects under MEMA
requirements
The following categories are used to define the priority of each mitigation strategy:
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 149
Low – Strategies that would not have a significant benefit to property or people, address only one or
two hazards, or would require funding and time resources that are impractical
Medium – Strategies that would have some benefit to people and property and are somewhat cost
effective at reducing damage to property and people
High – Strategies that provide mitigation of several hazards and have a large benefit that warrants their
cost and time to complete
Several hazard mitigation strategies identified in the previous Hazard Mitigation Plan have not yet been
completed, but were changed in priority during the update of this plan by the Hazard Mitigation
Committee. The Committee changed priorities by evaluating the entire list of mitigation strategies in a
comprehensive manner according to the factors listed above. For strategies that have changed in
priority, the previous priority is provided in parenthesis in the “Priority” column.
Cost Estimates
Each of the following implementation strategies is provided with a cost estimate. Projects that already
have secured funding are noted as such. Where precise financial estimates are not currently available,
categories were used with the following assigned dollar ranges:
• Low – cost less than $50,000
• Medium – cost between $50,000 – $250,000
• High – cost over $250,000
Cost estimates take into account the following resources:
• City staff time for grant application and administration (based on estimated average hourly
rate of City staff)
• Consultant design and construction cost (based on estimates for projects obtained from City
and general knowledge of previous work in City)
• City staff time for construction, maintenance, and operation activities (based on estimated
average hourly rate of City staff)
Project Timeline
Each strategy is provided with an estimated length of time it will take for implementation. Where
funding has been secured for the project, a specific future date is provided for when completion will
occur. However, some projects do not currently have funding and thus it is difficult to know exactly
when they will be completed. For these projects, an estimate is provided for the amount of time it will
take to complete the project once funding becomes available.
150 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
1
Continue current
improvement strategies for
flood control facility and
implement
recommendations.
Continue SIP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
City Council, Mayor’s
Office, Department of
Public Works
2 years
MVP grant, HMGP,
CIP, Stormwater
Utility
$1M High
Status: Continuing. Contract engineers conducting assessments and improvements on behalf of the City, in line with requirements of US Army Corps of Engineers and FEMA accreditation.
Initial assessment of Hockanum Road flood control pump station completed and Phase 1 rehabilitation design in progress. Condition assessment and repair of some sections of toe drains
in progress. Future needs include, but are not limited to vegetation management at Mill and Connecticut River levees.
2
Retrofit existing or install
new back-up power
sources at government
buildings to supplement
existing fuel sources with
external generators and
photovoltaic cells.
Ongoing SIP All hazards
Central Services,
Emergency
Management Director,
Department of Public
Works, Fire
Department
4 years HMGP, CIP <$500,000
High
(formerly
medium)
Status: Backup generator installed for the Police Department radio tower at the landfill in 2017. Continuing as two sub-projects.:
1. Planning for islandable microgrid at DPW, Smith Vocational School, and Cooley Dickinson Hospital underway
2. PV/battery backup at Fire HQ: new parking lot design complete; procuring designer services for PV/battery system, waiting on grant extension
3
Evaluate and make needed
improvements to King
Street Brook drainage area
from Round Hill through
Barrett Street marsh to the
Connecticut River
Ongoing SIP, NSP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
Department of Public
Works 4 years MVP, HMGP High High
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 151
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
Status: City completed evaluation of potential for and initial design of nature-based design at Jackson Street School to hold back some water completed using MVP funds. Short term
improvements at the Barrett Street marsh beaver dam and downgradient stream completed by DPW. DPW continues to implement short-term improvements to the King Street Brook
area of flooding including cleaning out of the culverts and removing beaver dams and impediments to minimize flooding to residential areas on State Street and Church Street. An
assessment and conceptual design has been completed for the construction of a berm to improve flow through the culvert under the Northampton Bikeway but funding has not been
determined. Additional evaluation of other improvements may be necessary.
4
Evaluate feasibility and
design options to install
automated debris racks at
the stone arch structure in
the King Street Brook
Drainage Area
Continue SIP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
Department of Public
Works 3 years HMGP funds Medium High
5
Make needed
improvements to address
flooding of Elm Street
Brook and Williams Street
Brook
Continue SIP, NSP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
Department of Public
Works 4 years HMGP funds High High
Status: Incremental steps have been completed, including an evaluation of potential nature-based solutions at Elm Street and elsewhere along the stream. Elm Street Brook flooding will
be incrementally addressed by a new strategy to build infiltration trenches and other structures on City right of way and properties to reduce flows in the watershed. Drainage
improvements in the Bridge Street and Williams Street Brook areas have shifted to assessment and repair/upgrade of the Day Avenue Brook drainage system in conjunction with
improvements as part of the Damon Road reconstruction project. Much work remains to be done to mitigate the flood problems in these two distinct watersheds.
152 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
6
Develop a more formalized
beaver management
strategy to build upon
current process
Continue.
Solutions are
unique to each
site and it was
determined that
an overall
checklist or
management
strategy will
need to provide
a unique
framework for
each site.
LPR, NSP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
Conservation
Commission, Planning
and Sustainability,
Planning and
Sustainability
4 years
Department of
Public Works,
Planning and
Sustainability
Low
Medium
(previously
high)
7
Public education outreach
for floodplain related
information
Ongoing EAP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms.
Planning and
Sustainability Every year Operating budget Low Medium
Status: The City distributes floodplain related information at the Forbes Library and does annual mailing outreach to repetitive loss areas of the floodplain and to banking and real estate
services.
8
Develop an outreach
program to ensure that
owners of private
stormwater systems are
maintaining culverts,
floodwater storage areas
and other stormwater
management structures.
Continue EAP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
Department of Public
Works 2 years
Department of
Public Works /
Volunteers
Low
Medium
(previously
low)
Status: The DPW and Office of Planning and Sustainability will continue to monitor the status of maintenance of private stormwater systems and reach out to homeowners’ associations
and other owners of private stormwater systems to educate about on-going operation and maintenance responsibilities.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 153
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
9
Conduct on-going review of
impacts of climate change
on people, property, and
critical facilities in
Northampton
Ongoing. LPR All hazards Planning and
Sustainability 3 years HMGP funds Low Medium
Status: Periodic assessments as part of Northampton Resilience strategy, MVP applications, FEMA hazard mitigation plans, prim arily focused on downscaling regional climate data
supplementing by local information when needed. In addition the City’s planning for a community and resilience hub includes understanding impacts on frontline communities. Potential
for a partnership between the City, State, and other municipalities to build on the ongoing map modernization FEMA study of t he watershed projecting floodplain limits in 1, 2, 10 year
storms.
10
Complete recently initiated
inventory and prioritization
of culvert repairs
throughout the City.
Upgrade and repair
undersized stormwater
drainage systems as
appropriate.
Revised and
ongoing. SIP
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
City Council, Mayor’s
Office, Department of
Public Works,
Department of Planning
and Sustainability
5-20 years
Department of
Public Works,
Planning and
Sustainability,
HMGP
Very high Medium
Status: This strategy was previously more broadly focused: “Upgrade and repair undersized stormwater drainage system near downtown Northampton,” and is revised this year to
directly address one part of t stormwater system – culverts. Upgrades and repairs of stormwater systems and culverts are ongoing based on specific needs, condition assessments and in
coordination with the schedule for roadway reconstruction. The 2012 Stormwater and Flood Control System Assessment and Utility Plan provides guidance for upgrades and sizing of the
stormwater system. In 2019, the City initiated a six year design project to redesign Main Street and improve green infrastructure to retain water longer, and added rain gardens to Pulaski
Park to catch some Main Street stormwater. Additionally, the 2018 Technical Memorandum-Infrastructure Resilience Strategy Recommendations for the Northampton Climate and
Resiliency Plan provides guidance on the specific design storm to use for determining stormwater infrastructure sizing. In 2019, Planning and Sustainability’s Design with Nature project
assessed opportunities for nature-based solutions to hold stormwater before it reaches stormwater systems and causes flooding.
154 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
11
Investigate opportunities
for incentivizing utility
companies for
undergrounding utilities.
Conduct background
research of similar
approaches in other
communities.
Ongoing. LPR All hazards Planning and
Sustainability, PVPC 3 years MVP, HMGP funds Medium muideM
12
Work with local building
official and Hampshire
county emergency
response providers to
identify an earthquake-
resilient regional shelter to
comply with latest version
of the building code.
Ongoing, revised LPR Earthquake Building Inspector,
EMD, WRSHAC 2 years
FEMA, WRSHAC,
Hampshire County
Emergency Shelter
Low Low
13
Educate homeowners on
how to prepare for a
tornado or hurricanes.
Ongoing EAP Tornadoes,
hurricanes
Emergency
Management Director,
Fire Department
2 years
Western Region
Homeland Security
Advisory Council,
Capital Budget
Low Low
Status: The City's Emergency Management Coordinator is active in the Western Region Homeland Security Advisory Council, which regularly conducts public outreach programs for
preparedness. These efforts will continue moving forward.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 155
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
14
Achieve FEMA
Accreditation of flood
control system. Borings and
full analysis of flood control
levees underway (funded
by MVP grant and
stormwater utility)
New strategy,
related to
strategy #1
above.
SIP, LPR
Flooding,
Hurricanes,
Thunderstorms
City Council, Mayor’s
Office, Department of
Public Works, Planning
and Sustainability
2 years, based
on FEMA
mapping
modernization
project for the
Middle
Connecticut
watershed
MVP, HMGP, CIP,
Stormwater Utility
< $750,000 -
$2M High
15
Upgrades to the Hockanum
Pumping Station including
an evaluation study to
inform engineering design
and construction for three
phases of upgrades. Phase
1 includes major electrical
upgrades, fuel storage tank
replacement, and sewer
line replacement.
New strategy,
related to
strategy #1
above.
SIP Flood Department of Public
Works 10 years
Department of
Public Works, MVP,
EEA Dam and
Seawall Repair
Grant Program
Approx. $6M High
16
Complete the toe drain
inspections that were
started in 2015, install new
access manholes, and spot
repair collapsed segments
of toe drain, as needed.
New strategy,
related to
strategy #1
above.
SIP Flood Department of Public
Works 2 years
Department of
Public Works, EEA
Dam and Seawall
Repair Grant
Program
$680,000 High
156 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
17
Wastewater Treatment
Plant (WWTP) upgrades in
accordance with the 2016
Comprehensive
Wastewater Management
Plan (CWMP)
New strategy SIP
Flood,
Hurricane/Tropical
Storm/ Severe
Wind
Department of Public
Works 20 years
Department of
Public Works, Clean
Water State
Revolving Funds
(CWSRF)
FY18,
$900,000
FY21-22
$10M
High
18
Rehabilitate the Francis P.
Ryan Reservoir Dam and
the West Whately
Reservoir Dam to meet
Office of Dam Safety
requirements
New strategy SIP Flood, Dam/ Levee
Failure
Department of Public
Works 5 years
Department of
Public Works, EEA
Dam and Seawall
Repair Grant
Program
Approx. $6M High
19
New: Develop Community
& Resilience Hub as a
downtown physical facility
with a coordinated
program for frontline
communities and all
residents who face chronic
and acute stress due to
disasters, pandemics,
climate change, and other
social and economic
challenges.
New strategy SIP Pandemic, all
hazards
Planning and
Sustainability 5 years HMGP, MVP, other
state grants High High
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 157
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
20
Restore Rocky Hill
Greenway-Pine Grove Golf
Course: Restore former golf
course to a natural system,
removing catch basins,
reservoirs, concrete blocks
and other fill, and grass
cover, and restoring
wetlands, floodplain,
natural riparian channel,
and floodplain.
New strategy.
First $300,000
phase (catch
basins, grass
cover, start of
natural forest)
completed in
2020 with MVP
funds.
NSP, SIP Flood Planning and
Sustainability 5 years HMGP, MVP, other
state grants $1.5M High
21
Replace Ice Pond outlet
structure. Combination of
natural systems
enhancement and
reconstruction of outlet
structure to capture
stormwater that is
threatening and has
previously damaged Rocky
Hill Road/Route 66.
New strategy.
Design phase,
necessary
easement, and
FEMA grant
application are
complete as of
June, 2020.
NSP, SIP Flood Planning and
Sustainability 3 years MVP for design,
HMGP $350,000 High
158 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
22
Purchase at risk properties
in floodplain. Purchase and
remove structures from
floodplain. Purchase other
flood prone properties for
permanently protected
open space preservation.
New strategy,
already in
progress. For
example, the
City, through
Planning and
Sustainability,
purchased Pine
Grove Golf
Course (2020),
and donated
land to Conte
Fish and Wildlife
Refuge (2020),
LPR, NSP Flood Planning and
Sustainability 10 years HMGP, LAND,
FLWCF $1 M High
23
Public education to
minimize the impact of
invasive species. Continue
growing an existing
volunteer program to
mechanically manage
invasive plant populations.
New strategy EAP Invasive Species
Planning and
Sustainability,
Conservation
Commission, DPW
2 years Staff time, CPA Low Low
24
Conduct annual forest
surveys on conservation
lands to identify new
invasive infestations and
initiate rapid response
efforts to control those
infestations before they
become established
populations
New NSP Invasive Species
Planning and
Sustainability,
Conservation
Commission, DPW
5 years Staff Time, MVP,
DCR
Low-
Medium Medium
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 159
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
25
Public education campaigns
to minimize the impact of
extreme temperature
events
(1) promote utility and
state-funded residential
insulation and air sealing
incentive programs
(2) promote increased use
of high-efficiency air source
heat pumps for residential
heating and cooling,
particularly to populations
sensitive to extreme
temperatures.
New EAP Extreme temps
Central Services /
Energy & Sustainability
Commission
Annually,
biennially or
triennially as
funding and
staff time
allows
Massachusetts
Clean Energy
Center, operating
budget (staff time),
utility
partnership(s),
resident volunteers
Low Low
26
Increase shade trees for
cooling. Over 1,000 trees
planted within the last 5
years
New NSP Extreme temps DPW Short and long
term
DPW Budget,
significant tree
mitigation fund,
volunteers.
Medium Medium
160 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Table 29. Mitigation Strategies to be Implemented
Mitigation Action Status Mitigation
Category
Hazards
Mitigated
Responsible
Department/Board Timeline
Potential
Funding
Source(s)
Estimated
Cost Priority
27
Review city and regional
emergency response plans
to better prepare for
pandemics, recognizing
how design of place for
social distancing leading up
to any event can impact
risk levels for vulnerable
populations during a
pandemic. Also, review and
update HMP through a new
lens based on our
experience with COVID-19.
New LPR All hazards,
pandemic
Emergency
Management, Planning
and Sustainability,
Board of Health
2 years HMGP, FEMA Low High
Notes: “All Hazards” indicates all hazards profiled in this plan.
Acronyms and Abbreviations:
COA Council on Aging
DPW Department of Public Works
DLTA District Local Technical Assistance
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FPA Floodplain Administrator
HMA Hazard Mitigation Assistance
N/A Not applicable
NFIP National Flood Insurance Program
MEMA Massachusetts Office of Emergency Management
MVP Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness Program
Timeline:
Short 1 to 5 years
Long 5 years or greater
OG On-going program
DOF Depending on funding
Costs:
Where actual project costs have been reasonably estimated:
Low < $50,000
Med $50,000 to $250,000
High > $250,000
Where actual costs cannot reasonably be established at this time:
Low Possible to fund under existing budget. Project is part of, or can be part of an existing on-
going program.
Med Could budget for under existing work plan, but would require a reapportionment of the
budget or a budget amendment, or the cost of the project would have to be spread over
multiple years.
High Would require an increase in revenue via an alternative source (i.e., bonds, grants, fee
increases) to implement. Existing funding levels are not adequate to cover the costs of the
proposed project.
Mitigation Category:
Local Plans and Regulations (LPR) – These actions include government authorities, policies, or codes that influence the way land and buildings are being developed and built.
Structure and Infrastructure Project (SIP) - These actions involve modifying existing structures and infrastructure to protect them from a hazard or remove them from a hazard area. This action could apply to public or
private structures as well as critical facilities and infrastructure. This type of action also involves projects to construct manmade structures to reduce the impact of hazards.
Natural Systems Protection (NSP) – These actions minimize damage and losses and also preserve or restore the functions of natural systems.
Education and Awareness Programs (EAP) – These actions inform and educate citizens, elected officials, and property owners about hazards and potential ways to mitigate them. These actions may also include
participation in national programs, such as StormReady and Firewise Communities
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 161
6: PLAN REVIEW, EVALUATION, IMPLEMENTATION, AND ADOPTION
Plan Adoption
Upon completion of the draft Hazard Mitigation Plan, a public meeting was held on June 22th to receive
comments. The Hazard Mitigation Plan was then submitted to the Massachusetts Emergency
Management Agency (MEMA) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency for their review. Upon
receiving conditional approval of the plan by FEMA, the plan was presented to the Northampton City
Council and adopted.
Plan Implementation
The implementation of this plan began upon its formal adoption by the City Council and approval by
MEMA and FEMA. Those City departments and boards responsible for ensuring the development of
policies, ordinance revisions, and programs as described in Sections 5 and 6 of this plan will be notified
of their responsibilities immediately following approval. The Hazard Mitigation Committee will oversee
the implementation of the plan.
Incorporation with Other Planning Documents
Existing plans, studies, reports and municipal documents were incorporated throughout the planning
process. This included a review and incorporation of significant information from the following key
documents:
• Northampton Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan (particularly the Critical
Infrastructure Section) – the Critical Infrastructure section was used to identify those
infrastructure components in Northampton that have been identified as crucial to the
function of the Northampton; also, this resource was used to identify special needs
populations as well as potential emergency shortcomings.
• Northampton Open Space, Recreation, and Multiuse Trail Plan 2018-2025– this Plan was
used to identify the natural context within which the Northampton mitigation planning
would take place. This proved useful insofar as it identified water bodies, rivers, streams,
infrastructure components (i.e. water and sewer, or the lack thereof), as well as population
trends. This was incorporated to ensure that the City’s mitigation efforts would be sensitive
to the surrounding environment. During the OSRP update, Northampton incorporated the
work of the Hazard Mitigation Plan update in 2015 to incorporate identified hazard areas
into open space and recreation planning. This could either take the form of acquiring
parcels of land that are currently un-developed, but situated within an identified hazard
area, as permanent open space, thereby minimizing the likelihood that critical infrastructure
components will be constructed in an area prone to damage from natural hazards.
162 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
• Northampton Zoning Ordinance - The City’s Zoning was used to gather identify those
actions that the City is already taking that are reducing the potential impacts of a natural
hazard (i.e. floodplain regulations) to avoid duplicating existing successful efforts.
• Massachusetts’ State Hazard Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Plan - This plan was used
to insure that the City’s HMP was consistent with the State’s Plan.
• The Flood and Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan for the City of Northampton was used to
gather information on those actions and activities that the City is already undertaking in
regards to pre-disaster mitigation for the City’s greatest threat, flooding. This included
incorporating statistical research, existing mitigation measures, and project rankings for
Northampton.
• The Sustainable Northampton Comprehensive Plan – actions from the Hazard Mitigation
Plan that promote a sustainable Northampton are incorporated.
• Northampton Climate Resilience and Regeneration Plan (2019) Draft will be incorporated
into the Sustainable Northampton Comprehensive Plan in the next update. The document
identifies the dedication of city-wide systems and policies to mitigate climate change and
build resilience and regenerative programming for the future.
• Summary of Findings, City of Northampton Community Resilience Building Workshop,
updated March 2020 – priorities and actions identified per hazard confirming community
commitment through the MVP program’s Community Resilience Building workshop to
promote building resilient systems and processes
• Discovery Report for the Middle Connecticut Watershed, HUC-8 01080201, FEMA product
prioritizes areas and infrastructure of concern within the watershed. A product of this
planning process will include the remapping of selected major floodplains.
Guided by the resources identified above and other best practices, the Committee made a number of
changes to this Hazard Mitigation Plan Update. The most notable include:
Adding Extreme Temperatures, Invasive Species, and Pandemic to the list of profiled Hazards of
Concern
Expanding the description of the sectors assessed for the vulnerability analysis
Adding a section on Climate Change and Natural Hazards to the beginning of the Risk
Assessment Chapter, and redistributing the discussion of climate change considerations
formerly included at the end of the Risk Assessment Chapter into each hazard profile.
Reorganizing the Critical Facilities list to more clearly delineate the buildings and infrastructure
which have been determined to be critical to providing emergency services to the planning area.
Features of these facilities, such as whether or not they are equipped with back-up power, are
included as notes or elsewhere in the plan.
Reprioritized all of the new and existing mitigation strategies to reflect current financial, legal,
political, and post-disaster conditions.
The Hazard Mitigation Plan will also be incorporated into updates of the following plans:
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 163
• Comprehensive Emergency Management Plan
• Open Space, Recreation, and Multiuse Trail Plan updates
• Flood and Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan for the City of Northampton
• Sustainable Northampton Comprehensive Plan
• Future updates of the City of Northampton Community Resilience Building Workshop
Summary of Findings
• Northampton Climate Resilience and Regeneration Plan
During regular update meetings for the Hazard Mitigation Plan, the Hazard Mitigation Committee will
review whether any of these plans are in the process of being updated. If so, the Hazard Mitigation
Committee will provide copies of the Hazard Mitigation Plan to relevant City staff and brief them on the
content of the Hazard Mitigation Plan. The Hazard Mitigation Committee will also review current City
programs and policies to ensure that they are consistent with the mitigation strategies described in this
plan.
Plan Monitoring and Evaluation
The measure of success of the Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan will be the number of identified
mitigation strategies implemented. In order for the City to become more disaster resilient, there must
be a coordinated effort between elected officials, appointed bodies, City employees, regional and state
agencies involved in natural hazard mitigation, and the general public.
The Northampton Hazard Mitigation Committee will meet on an annual basis or as needed (i.e.,
following a natural disaster) to monitor the progress of implementation, evaluate the success or failure
of implemented recommendations, and brainstorm for strategies to remove obstacles to
implementation. As the Hazard Mitigation Plan is monitored and evaluated, the Committee will add
information about hazard events / disasters that have occurred in the prior planning year in order to
avoid missing them in the next update.
Following these discussions, it is anticipated that the committee may decide to reassign the roles and
responsibilities for implementing mitigation strategies to different City departments and/or revise the
estimated costs, timelines for implementation, or priority of one or more proposed action. The
committee will review and update the plan every year, beginning in the spring of 2021. The meetings of
the committee will be organized and facilitated by Planning and Sustainability. Public participation will
be a critical component of the Hazard Mitigation Plan maintenance process. The Hazard Mitigation
Committee will hold all meetings in accordance with Massachusetts open meeting laws. Hard copies of
the plan will be available in City Hall and at Forbes Library. Any proposed amendments resulting from
annual Committee meetings will be advertised and posted on the city's website and the Planning and
Sustainability listserve newsletter. Any changes will be preceded by a public hearing and solicitation of
public comments.
164 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
7: APPENDICES
Appendix A – Documentation of the Planning Process
Invitation to Participate in the Planning Process
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 165
Committee Meeting Agendas and Records of Attendance
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update Steering Committee
Meeting #1 Agenda
Virtual Zoom Meeting
April 2, 2020, 9:00 a.m.
1. Introductions and Roll Call
2. Overview of Hazard Mitigation Planning Process (see HMP Overview.doc)
a. What is Hazard Mitigation Planning
b. Planning process and requirements
i. Items to be reviewed/ updated from current HMP
1. Value of all property in city
2. Recent and planned development projects
3. History of natural hazards in last 5 years
4. Hazard identification map (including culverts)
5. Critical facilities inventory and map
6. Hazard risk assessments
7. Status of previously identified mitigation strategies
8. New mitigation strategies
ii. Build on the lessons learned from recent planning
1. MVP planning grant
2. MVP Northampton Designs with Nature action grant
3. Northampton Climate Resiliency and Regeneration Plan
3. Our tasks Today:
a. Select hazards to include in the plan (see hazards matrix handout)
b. Confirm/Update Planning Goal: To minimize the loss of life, damage to property, and
the disruption of governmental services and general business activities due to the
following hazards: flooding, severe snowstorms/ice storms, severe thunderstorms,
hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires/brushfires, earthquakes, dam failures, and drought.
c. Agree on future meeting schedule (see below)
d. Develop outreach strategy (refer to HMP Overview.doc)
4. Questions?
5. Next Steps
a. Review Draft Press Release (Emily to distribute), submit to local media
b. Complete hazard events worksheet (Emily to distribute)
c. Next committee meeting agenda:
i. Review of Hazards/Critical Facilities
ii. Identify Unique Local Hazards (past and potential) on Base Map
iii. Identify Local Critical Facilities
166 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
2020 City of Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update (FEMA)
Committee Meeting Sign-In Sheet
Meeting Date: April 2, 2020
Steering Committee Core
Member Position Representing Present
David Veleta, PE City Engineer Public Works y
Doug McDonald Stormwater Public Works y
Jon Davine Fire Chief Emergency Management n
Jody Kasper Police Chief Police y
David Pomerantz Director Central Services y
Sarah LaValley Environmental Planner Planning and Sustainability y
Kelly Schuetze Director Dispatch y
Attending and Consulting as needed
Specialty Member Position Representing
Wayne Feiden, FAICP Planning Director Planning and Sustainability y
Chris Mason Energy & Sustainability
Officer
Central Services y
Donna LaScalia Director Public Works n
Andrew Pelis Deputy Fire Chief Fire, Emergency Management y
Merridith O’Leary Director Public Health n
PVPC staff
Lead Staffer Title Notes
Emily Slotnick Senior Planner Project manager y
Ken Comia Land Use Planner y
Jake Dolinger GIS n
Members of the Public
None
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 167
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update Steering Committee
Meeting #2 Agenda
Virtual Zoom Meeting
April 28, 2020, 7:30 p.m.
1. Introductions and Roll Call
a. All participants to type names into Zoom chat feature to indicate attendance
2. Our tasks Today:
a. Review Local Critical Facilities
b. Identify locations of unique local hazards (past and potential)
c. Request updated list of problem culverts
d. Identify/Update Potential New Development Sites
3. Questions?
4. Next Steps
a. Complete capabilities assessment worksheet (Emily to distribute)
b. Next committee meeting agenda:
i. Review capabilities assessment
ii. Review existing mitigation strategies and “integration actions”
iii. Review other recommended mitigation measures from 2015 plan
Upcoming schedule
1. CM #3: Thursday May 21, 9:00 – 11:00 am
2. CM #4: Thursday June 4, 9:00 – 11:00 am
3. Complete draft HMP update the week of June 15th
4. PM #2 and CM #5: Monday, June 22, 6:30-8:30 pm
a. Present draft plan at PM#2
b. Send draft plan to City Council for reading at their June 18th or July 9th meeting
5. Submission to MEMA for review – First week of July
6. Current plan expires August, 2020
Attendees
Committee Members
David Pomerantz
Chris Mason
Emily Slotnick
Kelly Schuetze
Wayne Feiden
Sarah LaValley
David Veleta
168 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update Steering Committee
Meeting #3 Agenda
Virtual Zoom Meeting
May 22, 2020, 9:00 a.m.
1. Introductions and Roll Call
a. All participants to type names into Zoom chat feature to indicate attendance
2. Our tasks Today:
a. Review capabilities assessment
b. Review existing mitigation strategies and “integration actions”
c. Review other recommended mitigation measures from 2015 plan, as time allows
3. Questions?
4. Next Steps
a. Complete mitigation strategy worksheet (Emily to distribute)
b. Next committee meeting agenda:
i. Review proposed mitigation strategy
ii. Prepare for Public Meeting #2
iii. Plan Review, Evaluation, Implementation, and Adoption, if time allows
Upcoming schedule
7. CM #4: Thursday June 4, 9:00 – 11:00 am
8. Complete draft HMP update the week of June 15th
9. PM #2 and CM #5: Monday, June 22, 6:30-8:30 pm
a. Present draft plan at PM#2
b. Send draft plan to City Council for reading at their June 18th or July 9th meeting
10. Submission to MEMA for review – First week of July
11. Current plan expires August, 2020
Attendees
Committee Members
Wayne Feiden
Sarah LaValley
Kelly Schuetze
David Veleta
Doug McDonald
Chris Mason
David Pomerantz
PVPC
Emily Slotnick
Kenneth Comia
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 169
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update Steering Committee
Meeting #4 Agenda
Virtual Zoom Meeting
June 4, 2020, 9:00 a.m.
1. Introductions and Roll Call
a. All participants to type names into Zoom chat feature to indicate attendance
2. Review Completed, Deleted, and Proposed Mitigation Strategies
a. Costs
b. Prioritization
c. Responsible entities
d. Funding sources
3. Prepare for Public Meeting #2
4. Plan Review, Evaluation, Implementation, and Adoption
5. Next Steps: Complete draft HMP update the week of June 15th
6. Next meeting date: PM #2 and CM #5: Monday, June 22, 6:30-8:30 pm
a. Present draft plan at PM#2
b. Send draft plan to City Council for reading at their June 18th or July 9th meeting
Attendance
Committee Members
Andrew Pelis
David Pomerantz
Wayne Feiden
Sarah LaValley
Chris Mason
Doug McDonald
Josh Shanley
David Veleta
PVPC
Emily Slotnick
170 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Committee
Meeting Agenda
Zoom Meeting
June 22, 2020, 7:30 p.m. – 8:30 p.m.
1. Review of revisions required based on public input
2. Next Steps
a. Submission to MEMA for review – First week of July
b. Send draft plan to City Council for reading at their August meeting
3. Current plan expires August, 2020
Attendance
Committee Members
Andrew Pelis
David Pomerantz
Wayne Feiden
Sarah LaValley
Chris Mason
Doug McDonald
Josh Shanley
David Veleta
PVPC
Kenneth Comia
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 171
Public Meeting Agendas, Records of Attendance, Press Releases, and Presentations
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Public Meeting #1
Virtual Zoom Meeting
April 28, 2020, 6:30 p.m.
Agenda
1. Welcome and introductions
2. Overview of hazard mitigation planning process
3. Hazard identification and risk assessment
a. Types of hazards affecting Northampton
b. Previous occurrences, extent, location, impact, future probability, and vulnerability of
each hazard
2. Next steps
Attendees
Committee Members
David Pomerantz
Chris Mason
Emily Slotnick
Kelly Schuetze
Wayne Feiden
Sarah LaValley
David Veleta
Members of the Public
Alex Jarrett, Ward 5 City Councilor
Sarah Howard
Molly Moss, Forbes Library
Linda Danube
Jenn Guetti Slocum, Head Start
Alisa Klein, Grow Food Northampton
Sharon Moulton
Jamie Kaplan
Debin Bruce
Rowan Cignoni
Bruce Stedman, Conway School of
Landscape Design
Jonathan Danube
George Kohout, Planning Board
Ed Skroski
Marianna Zak
172 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
MEDIA RELEASE / NOTICE
CONTACT: Emily Slotnick, PVPC Senior Planner, (413) 285-1188 or eslotnick@pvpc.org
Sarah I. LaValley, Conservation, Preservation and Land Use Planner,
Northampton Office of Planning and Sustainability, 413-587-1263 or
slavalley@northamptonma.gov
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
April 3, 2020
City of Northampton to Hold Public Engagement Event for its Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Northampton residents, businesses, and surrounding community representatives are invited to learn
about the City of Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan (HMP) Update and provide comments at a Zoom
meeting on April 28 from 6:30-7:30 pm. Individuals can connect to the meeting using the Zoom desktop
client, Zoom mobile app, landline, or cell phone. The meeting will include an overview of the hazard
mitigation planning process and a discussion of existing mitigation initiatives addressing natural hazards
in Northampton. Members of the HMP steering committee, municipal officials and PVPC staff will be
available to answer questions and receive input on the impacts of natural hazards on the City. All
members of the public, representatives from surrounding communities and other interested parties are
welcome to attend the event.
https://tinyurl.com/HampHMP
Meeting ID: 306 528 007; Password: 027571 or dial in at +1-301-715-8592
This planning effort is being undertaken to help Northampton assess the risks faced from natural
hazards, identify action steps that can be taken to prevent injury, loss of life, and damage to property,
and prioritize funding for mitigation efforts. A mitigation action is any action taken to reduce or
eliminate the long-term risk to human life and property from hazards. Past Hazard Mitigation Plans have
made the City eligible for grant-funded construction projects (e.g., bank stabilization along Roberts
Meadow Brook, flood control measures along River Road, and elevating a house on Island Road) and
advanced regulatory reform (e.g., revising the City's floodplain regulations).
To facilitate the HMP update process, the City has established a steering committee to update its HMP
with assistance from the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission and funding from the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) and the Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency (MEMA). All
steering committee working meetings will be posted on the City’s website and are open to the public.
Individuals interested in the HMP update process who are unable to attend a meeting can submit
questions and comments to the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission.
For more information, please contact PVPC's Emily Slotnick at eslotnick@pvpc.org or (413) 285-1188.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 173
174 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Slides from Public Outreach Presentation on April 28, 2020
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 175
176 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 177
178 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Northampton Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Public Meeting #2
Virtual Zoom Meeting
June 22, 2020, 6:30 p.m.
Agenda
1. Welcome and introductions
2. Presentation of Draft Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
a. Review of Mitigation Strategy
3. Next Steps
Attendance
Fred Zimnoch, Ward3
David Veleta, DPW
Andrew Peli, Northampton Fire
Wayne Feiden, Planning & Sustainability
Sarah LaValley, Planning & Sustainability
Louis Hasbrouck, Northampton Building Department
George Kohout, Planning Board
Doug McDonald, DPW
David Veleta, DPW
Catherine Ratte PVPC
Ken Comia PVPC
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 179
Media and Press Release
180 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Slides from Public Outreach Presentation on July 22, 2020
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 181
182 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 183
184 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Location of Draft Hazard Mitigation Plan on Website of Pioneer Valley Planning Commission
http://www.pvpc.org/plans/city-northampton-hazard-mitigation-plan
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 185
Appendix B – List of Acronyms
CCRP Northampton Climate Resilience and Regeneration Plan
CDC Center for Disease Control
CEM Community Emergency Management
CIS FEMA Community Information System
COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease
CRB Community Resilience Building
CRS Community Rating System – Page 117
DCR Department of Conservation and Recreation – Page 7
DPW Northampton Department of Public Works – Page 13
EOC Emergency Operations Center
EOP Emergency Operations Plan
FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency
FFR Farms, Forest and Rivers Overlay District
FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Maps
FMA Flood Mitigation Assistance Program
FRTA Franklin Regional Transit Authority
HMGP Hazard Mitigation Grant Program
LEP Limited English Proficiency
LID Low Impact Development
MassDEP Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection – Page 13
MassDOT Massachusetts Department of Transportation – Page 7
MassGIS Massachusetts Bureau of Geographic Information
MAVEN Massachusetts Viral Epidemiological Network
MEMA Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
MVP Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness
186 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
NAACC North Atlantic Aquatic Connectivity
NE CASC Northeast Climate Adaptation Science Center
NFIP National Flood Insurance Program
NOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
OSRD Open Space Residential Development
PDM Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program
PVPC Pioneer Valley Planning Commission
PVTA Pioneer Valley Transit Authority
RiskMAP FEMA Risk Mapping, Assessment, and Planning
SFHA Special Flood Hazard Area
SHMCAP State Hazard Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Plan
SRO Single Room Occupancy
THIRA Threat Identification and Risk Assessment
WHO World Health Organization
WRHSAC Western Region Homeland Security Advisory Council
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 187
Appendix C – Past and Potential Hazards / Critical Facilities Map
188 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Appendix D – Natural Hazard Profiling Methodology
In order to adeptly profile each of the hazards, a Hazard Identification and Analysis Matrix was prepared
to organize the information that was gathered for this project.
The matrix is organized into the following sections: Type of Hazard, Location of Occurrence, Extent of
Impacts, Previous Occurrences, Probability of Future Occurrence, and Hazard Index. The Hazard Index
was completed to rank the hazards according to the frequency of occurrence and the amount of
potential damage likely to occur. The Hazard Index forms the basis for concentrating the future
mitigation efforts outlined in this plan. A description of each of the matrix categories is provided below.
The completed Matrix is shown as Table 2. Hazard Identification and Analysis for Northampton (Section
3, page 20).
Location of Occurrence
The classifications are based on the area of the City of Northampton that would potentially be affected
by the hazard. The following scale was used:
Table D.1: Location of Occurrence, Percentage of Town Impacted of Given Natural
Hazard
Location of Occurrence Percentage of Town Impacted
Large More than 50% of the town affected
Medium 10 to 50% of the town affected
Small Less than 10% of the town affected
Extent of Impacts
The extent of direct impacts an affected area could potentially suffer were classified according to the
following scale:
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 189
Table D.2: Extent of Impacts, Magnitude of Multiple Impacts of Given Natural Hazard
Extent of
Impacts Magnitude of Multiple Impacts
Catastrophic Multiple deaths and injuries possible. More than 50% of property in affected area
damaged or destroyed. Complete shutdown of facilities for 30 days or more.
Critical Multiple injuries possible. More than 25% of property in affected area damaged or
destroyed. Complete shutdown of facilities for more than 1 week.
Limited Minor injuries only. More than 10% of property in affected area damaged or
destroyed. Complete shutdown of facilities for more than 1 day.
Minor Very few injuries, if any. Only minor property damage and minimal disruption on
quality of life. Temporary shutdown of facilities.
Previous Occurrences
Whether or not previous hazard events had occurred is also included, with detailed descriptions of
specific previous occurrences within the hazard identification and vulnerability assessments, if
necessary.
Probability of Future Occurrence
The likelihood of a future event for each natural hazard was classified according to the following scale:
Table D.3: Frequency of Occurrence and Annual Probability of Given Natural
Hazard
Frequency of Occurrence Probability of Future Event
Very High 70-100% probability in the next year
High 40-70% probability in the next year
Moderate 10-40% probability in the next year
Low 1-10% probability in the next year
Very Low Less than 1% probability in the next year
Hazard Index
The hazard index ratings were determined after assessing the frequency, location and impact
classifications for each hazard. The hazard index ratings are based on a scale of 1 (highest risk) through
5 (lowest risk). The ranking is qualitative and is based, in part, on local knowledge of past experiences
190 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
with each type of hazard. The size and impacts of a natural hazard can be unpredictable however; many
of the mitigation strategies currently in place and many of those proposed for implementation can be
applied to the expected natural hazards, regardless of their unpredictability.
The Hazard Ratings are labeled as follows:
1 – High Risk
2 – Medium-High Risk
3 – Medium Risk
4 – Medium Low Risk
5 – Low Risk
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 191
Appendix E – References
Advancing the Science of Climate Change, National Academies Press, 2010,
https://www.nap.edu/read/12782/chapter/15#314
CDC, 2017. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/pdf/pan-flu-report-2017v2.pdf
CDC, 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/history/distribution-map.html
CDC, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pandemic-resources/basics/past-pandemics.html
Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) Plan
Comprehensive Waster Management Plan, 2016.
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), www.fema.gov/hazards/earthquakes/quake.shtm
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation
Planning, https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/4528
FEMA Community Information System, 2020.
FEMA Risk Mapping, Assessment, and Planning (RiskMAP), 2019. Discovery Process for Middle
Connecticut Watershed
Hampshire County Shelter System Concept of Operations
Jamison DT, Gelband H, Horton S, et al., editors. Washington (DC): The International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank; 2017 Nov 27
Massachusetts State Hazard Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Plan (MA HMCAP), 2018
Massachusetts Natural Resources Collaborations, Invasive Plants Advisory Group, 2016.
https://www.massnrc.org/mipag/speciesreviewed_category.htm
Massachusetts Fire Incidence Reporting System, County Profiles, 2017 Fire Data Analysis and Annual
Fact Sheets, https://www.mass.gov/service-details/fire-data-and-statistics
Massachusetts State Climate Change Adaptation Report (MASHMCAP), 2018. www.mass.gov/eea/air-
water-climate-change/climate-change/climate-change-adaptation-report.html
Massachusetts State Health Assessment, 2017.
https://www.mass.gov/files/documents/2017/11/03/Chapter%204.pdf?_ga=2.25220475.75988
4785.1589405533-1602091269.1500652517
Massachusetts State Wildlife Action Plan, 2015. www.mass.gov/service-details/state-wildlife-action-
plan-swap
192 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
MassGIS, 2014 L3 Data
MassGIS BioMap2, 2012. maps.massgis.state.ma.us/dfg/biomap/pdf/town_core/Northampton.pdf
"Mental health and psychosocial considerations during the COVID-19 outbreak" (PDF). World Health
Organization. 18 March 2020.; Godbole T (9 April 2020). "Domestic violence rises amid
coronavirus lockdowns in Asia". Deutsche Welle (DW). Retrieved 11 April 2020
National Drought Mitigation Center – http://drought.unl.edu
National Weather Service (NWS), Heat Index, 2018
National Weather Service (NWS), 2020,
https://water.weather.gov/ahps2/river.php?wfo=box&wfoid=18682&riverid=205004&pt%5B%5
D=145908&allpoints=145908%2C146659&data%5B%5D=impacts&data%5B%5D=stage&data%5
B%5D=crests
National Weather Service (NWS), 2020,
https://water.weather.gov/ahps2/river.php?wfo=box&wfoid=18682&riverid=203796&pt%5B%5D=1444
45&allpoints=143763%2C141260%2C143709%2C141640%2C144423%2C150552%2C141250%2C
144445%2C142863%2C142203%2C142784%2C142297%2C144501&data%5B%5D=crests
The Nature Conservancy, https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-
states/ohio/stories-in-ohio/invasive-species-protecting-native-plants-and-animals/
NOAA, 2020. https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/extremes/scec/records;
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/extremes/scec/records
NOAA, n.d., Climate Divisions of Massachusetts
NOAA, n.d., NOW Data
Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale (NESIS), 2018, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/snow-and-ice/rsi/nesis
NOAA, Hail Size, n.d., http://www.spc.noaa.gov/misc/tables/hailsize.htm
Northampton Climate Resilience & Regeneration Plan
Northampton Code of Ordinances
Northampton Open Space, Recreation, and Multiuse Trail Plan 2018-2025
Northampton Subdivision Rules and Regulations
Northampton Zoning Ordinance
Northeast Climate Adaptation Science Center (NE CASC), 2018. necsc.umass.edu
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 193
Northeast States Emergency Consortium, www.nesec.org/hazards/earthquakes.cfm
NPDP, 2018. National Performance of Dam Program (NPDP), Dam Incident Notification (DIN) system,
http://npdp.stanford.edu/dams_database
Pioneer Valley Planning Commission’s Climate Action and Clean Energy Plan,
www.pvpc.org/plans/climate-action-and-clean-energy-plan
Pioneer Valley Regional Land Use Plan, www.pvpc.org/plans/valley-vision-4-land-use
resilient MA, 2018/UMass climate data. resilientma.org
Sapiens, 2020. https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/covid-19-environment/
Science of the Total Environment, 2020.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720323378
Sperry-Piltz Ice Accumulation (SPIA) Index ,
http://www.spiaindex.com/images/SPIAIndexDescription.png
Summary of Findings, City of Northampton Community Resilience Building Workshop
Sustainable Northampton Comprehensive Plan
USA.com, http://www.usa.com/hampshire-county-ma-natural-disasters-extremes.htm
USACE, Ice Jam Database, 2018
UCI, 2017. University of California Irvine. https://news.uci.edu/2017/03/01/concurrent-heat-waves-air-
pollution-exacerbate-negative-health-effects-of-each/
US Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375. “National Water Summary 1989 – Floods and Droughts:
Massachusetts.” Prepared by S. William Wandle, Jr., US Geological Survey.
"Western Massachusetts escapes Hurricane Sandy's wrath, but impact elsewhere still being felt."
http://www.masslive.com/news/index.ssf/2012/10/western_massachusetts_escapes.html.
October 30, 2012. Accessed March 6, 2015.
World Health Organization, Climate Change and Human Health, Risks and Responses, 2003.
http://www.who.int/globalchange/environment/en/chapter6.pdf
194 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Appendix F – Technical Resources
1) Agencies
Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency (MEMA) 508/820-2000
Hazard Mitigation Section 617/626-1356
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 617/223-4175
MA Regional Planning Commissions:
Berkshire Regional Planning Commission (BRPC) 413/442-1521
Cape Cod Commission (CCC) 508/362-3828
Central Massachusetts Regional Planning Commission (CMRPC) 508/693-3453
Franklin Regional Council of Governments (FRCOG) 413/774-3167
Martha’s Vineyard Commission (MVC) 508/693-3453
Merrimack Valley Planning Commission (MVPC) 978/374-0519
Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC) 617/451-2770
Montachusett Regional Planning Commission (MRPC) 978/345-7376
Nantucket Planning and Economic Development Commission (NP&EDC) 508/228-7236
Northern Middlesex Council of Governments (NMCOG) 978/454-8021
Old Colony Planning Council (OCPC) 508/583-1833
Pioneer Valley Planning Commission (PVPC) 413/781-6045
Southeastern Regional Planning and Economic Development District (SRPEDD) 508/823-1803
MA Board of Building Regulations & Standards (BBRS) 617/227-1754
MA Coastal Zone Management (CZM) 617/626-1200
DCR Water Supply Protection 617/626-1379
DCR Waterways 617/626-1371
DCR Office of Dam Safety 508/792-7716
DFW Riverways 617/626-1540
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 195
MA Dept. of Housing & Community Development 617/573-1100
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute 508/457-2180
UMass-Amherst Cooperative Extension 413/545-4800
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 617/770-3000
New England Disaster Recovery Information X-Change (NEDRIX – an association of private
companies & industries involved in disaster recovery planning) 781/485-0279
MA Board of Library Commissioners 617/725-1860
MA Highway Dept, District 2 413/582-0599
MA Division of Marine Fisheries 617/626-1520
MA Division of Capital & Asset Management (DCAM) 617/727-4050
University of Massachusetts/Amherst 413/545-0111
Natural Resources Conservation Services (NRCS) 413/253-4350
MA Historical Commission 617/727-8470
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 978/318-8502
Northeast States Emergency Consortium, Inc. (NESEC) 781/224-9876
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: National Weather Service; Tauton, MA 508/824-5116
US Department of the Interior: US Fish and Wildlife Service 413/253-8200
US Geological Survey 508/490-5000
2) Mitigation Funding Resources
404 Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
406 Public Assistance and Hazard Mitigation Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) DHCD, also refer to RPC
Dam Safety Program MA Division of Conservation and Recreation
Disaster Preparedness Improvement Grant (DPIG) Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
Emergency Generators Program by NESEC‡ Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
196 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Emergency Watershed Protection (EWP) Program USDA, Natural Resources Conservation
Service Flood Mitigation Assistance Program (FMAP) Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
Flood Plain Management Services (FPMS) US Army Corps of Engineers
Mitigation Assistance Planning (MAP) Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
Mutual Aid for Public Works Western Massachusetts Regional Homeland Security Advisory Council
Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness Program MA Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs
National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) † Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
Power of Prevention Grant by NESEC‡ Massachusetts Emergency Management Agency
Roadway Repair & Maintenance Program(s) Massachusetts Highway Department
Section 14 Emergency Stream Bank Erosion & Shoreline Protection US Army Corps of Engineers
Section 103 Beach Erosion US Army Corps of Engineers
Section 205 Flood Damage Reduction US Army Corps of Engineers
Section 208 Snagging and Clearing US Army Corps of Engineers
Shoreline Protection Program MA Department of Conservation and Recreation
Various Forest and Lands Program(s) MA Department of Environmental Protection
Wetlands Programs MA Department of Environmental Protection
‡NESEC – Northeast States Emergency Consortium, Inc. is a 501(c)(3), not-for-profit natural disaster, multi-hazard mitigation and emergency
management organization located in Wakefield, Massachusetts. Please, contact NESEC for more information.
† Note regarding National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) and Community Rating System (CRS): The National Flood Insurance Program has
developed suggested floodplain management activities for those communities who wish to more thoroughly manage or reduce the
impact of flooding in their jurisdiction. Through use of a rating system (CRS rating), a community’s floodplain management efforts
can be evaluated for effectiveness. The rating, which indicates an above average floodplain management effort, is then factored into
the premium cost for flood insurance policies sold in the community. The higher the rating achieved in that community, the greater
the reduction in flood insurance premium costs for local property owners. MEMA can provide additional information regarding
participation in the NFIP-CRS Program.
City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update 197
3) Internet Resources
Sponsor Internet Address Summary of Contents
Natural Hazards
Research Center, U. of
Colorado
http://www.colorado.edu/litbase/ha zards/
Searchable database of
references and links to
many disaster-related
websites.
Atlantic Hurricane
Tracking Data by Year
http://wxp.eas.purdue.edu/hurricane
Hurricane track maps for
each year, 1886 – 1996
National Emergency
Management
Association
http://nemaweb.org
Association of state
emergency management
directors; list of mitigation
projects.
NASA – Goddard Space
Flight Center “Disaster
Finder:
http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/ndrd/dis aster/
Searchable database of
sites that encompass a
wide range of natural
disasters.
NASA Natural Disaster
Reference Database
http://ltpwww.gsfc.nasa.gov/ndrd/main/html
Searchable database of
worldwide natural
disasters.
U.S. State & Local
Gateway
http://www.statelocal.gov/
General information
through the federal-state
partnership.
National Weather
Service
http://nws.noaa.gov/
Central page for National
Weather Warnings,
updated every 60 seconds.
USGS Real Time
Hydrologic Data
http://h20.usgs.gov/public/realtime.html
Provisional hydrological
data
Dartmouth Flood
Observatory
http://www.dartmouth.edu/artsci/g
eog/floods/
Observations of flooding
situations.
FEMA, National Flood
Insurance Program,
Community Status Book
http://www.fema.gov/fema/csb.html
Searchable site for access
of Community Status
Books
Florida State University
Atlantic Hurricane Site
http://www.met.fsu.edu/explores/tropical.html
Tracking and NWS
warnings for Atlantic
Hurricanes and other links
198 City of Northampton 2020 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Update
Sponsor Internet Address Summary of Contents
The Tornado Project
Online
http://www.tornadoroject.com/
Information on tornadoes,
including details of recent
impacts.
National Severe Storms
Laboratory
http://www.nssl.uoknor.edu/
Information about and
tracking of severe storms.
Independent Insurance
Agents of America IIAA
Natural Disaster Risk
Map
http://www.iiaa.iix.com/ndcmap.html
A multi-disaster risk map.
Earth Satellite
Corporation
http://www.earthsat.com/
Flood risk maps
searchable by state.
USDA Forest Service
Web
http://www.fs.fed.us/land
Information on forest fires
and land management.